Studying human remains reveals unique information to archaeologists about a civilization’s customs and traditions.  In addition to cause of death, archaeologists can create a complete profile of the body’s lifestyle based on physiological features combined with intense critical thinking. Similarly, the remains of animals in the area can also provide great insight into a society’s culture by helping archaeologists gain a better understanding of the type of environment that the people lived in.  What kind of predators threatened their safety?  Did they domesticate animals and train them to perform actions to benefit the entire community?  A group of archaeologists used animal remains to analyze a unique aspect of Mayan culture—the interaction between different social and economic classes based on the distribution of animal resources.

This stone-carved depiction of a social-elite seizing resources from a lower class member of Mayan society serves as one of the few examples of art depicting social-class division.

Very little was known about the political and economic systems of Mayan society, as compared to archaeologists’ extensive knowledge of their advances in art and astronomy.  The way animal resources were distributed offered clues to the ways in which different social classes interacted, and archaeologists learned that their societies were not homogeneous by any means.  Instead, there were complicated systems in place to regulate trade relations, food distribution, and accessibility to species.  Because animals were used so widely for hides, tools, jewelry, and musical instruments, studying the geographic distribution of these resources revealed that there were elite classes that controlled a majority of the valuable resources.  But surprisingly, the middle classes used the widest variety of animals, as the wealthiest people only used exotic animals, such as jaguars and crocodiles, and the poorest could only afford to use inexpensive animals, such as a variety of fish and shellfish.

These animal bones, teeth and a cut jaw bone from a tapir, are an example of the ways Mayans used animal bones to create tools and instruments for daily use in society.

The study of animal bones has provided insight into the way Mayan cities interacted with surrounding villages through trade and commerce and has provided such extensive information because Mayan culture relies so heavily upon animal resources accomplish.  I am amazed by the amount of information that the archaeologists were able to infer about human cultures and tendencies from the examination of seemingly-unrelated artifacts.  Similar observations and critical thinking are applied when analyzing human remains as when uncovering truths about a society and their culture.  In the case of the Mayan civilization, the discovery of specific animal remains led archaeologists to believe that there were stricter class boundaries than previously thought.  The emergence of social hierarchy is an aspect of the “big picture” of Mayan civilization and social structure.  Without the creative approach to this investigative archaeology, they would be missing evidence of a significant aspect of Mayan culture which serves as further evidence of the often-overlooked sophistication of the ancient American civilizations.

Further Reading

http://phys.org/news/2015-10-temples-ancient-bones-reveal-mayan.html

http://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/animal-bones-shed-light-lifestyle-citizens-ancient-maya-cities-004405

http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/fall-2015/article/beyond-the-temples-ancient-bones-reveal-the-lives-of-the-mayan-working-class

http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/researchers-analyse-animal-bones-understand-how-working-class-mayan-civilisation-lived-1526449

Most of us know the term “forensic anthropology” from our favorite crime shows, but few people actually know what forensic anthropology is, or what being a forensic anthropologist entails. Hollywood has always been notorious for bending the truth when it comes to the science and technology shown in shows and movies, and the case of forensic anthropology is no exception. Kathy Reichs, forensic anthropologist, author, and one of the producers of the popular TV show “Bones” may have helped to bring forensic anthropology into the limelight, but it’s not as fast-paced or thrilling as it might appear.

Reichs at the Bones 100th Show Party Photo credit: / WENN

“Well, everything we use on “Bones” is real – the technology, the methodologies, the terminologies. What’s different is that in real life every single case does not get solved. You don’t find that, you know, sliver of skin cells in an acre of grass that cracked the case open. You – we won’t make mistakes on our show like having your DNA results in 12 minutes, that sort of thing.” Reich stated in a 2012 interview with NPR. Reich also acknowledges that the advanced equipment shown in the Jeffersonian labs, while real, is not available to most forensic anthropologists, as in the case of the “Angelatron.”

Angela virtually reconstructs the skull and then face of Cleo Louise Eller in Bones season 1 episode 1 according to Brennan’s instructions using the “Angelatron.”

Reich says, “it’s a three-dimensional holographic reconstruction apparatus, and it does exist. Now, have I ever been in a crime or medical legal lab that has one? No. It’s expensive.” Of course, the admittedly drool-worthy technology isn’t the only area in which the show fudges the facts for dramatic effect. Even with a display like this, a forensic anthropologist can rarely determine race with certainty from only a skull– Brennan’s big genius trick from the first episode of the series. Certainly they wouldn’t be able to assume the victim’s actual appearance with such accuracy (though this, too, is an actual practice sometimes used in criminal investigations, known as forensic artistry). As I and the other students of Professor Beisaw’s ANTH 100 class saw for ourselves last Thursday, race is very difficult to assess, because it is a social construct rather than a scientific category.

The earlier seasons, and the first episode in particular, suffer fewer inaccuracies than later episodes (most likely because of the show’s gradual shift from cranial reconstructions to conspiracy theories). When Brennan and her assistant, whiz kid Zack Addy first see the victim’s body, the skull is in pieces, but the rest of the skeleton is intact, so Brennan’s analysis of the victim being “a young woman, probably between 18 and 22, approximately 5’3, race unknown,” is no major leap; as Addy explains to Booth, “epiphysis fusion gives age, pelvic bone shape gives sex.” Hey– those are both real methods of determining age and sex!

Now, most forensic anthropologists spend most of their time analyzing bones only to discover that it’s a bear paw rather than a human hand. Those that do see human remains rarely see them in the context of a murder investigation. Within that small group, it is even rarer that the forensic anthropologist is present at the scene of the crime. Brennan does her first analysis of the body crouching at night, in low light, at the scene. Sorry, for those of you who thought forensic anthropology meant palling around with cops and teaming up with a hunky FBI agent to form a crime-fighting duo. Remember, this is fictional. But don’t discount everything you see– as it turns out, some of the forensics in Bones are downright realistic! Who would have thought?

If you’re interested in learning more about “forensic artists”: https://blogs.funeralwise.com/dying/2012/11/02/solving-murders-and-sculpting-skulls-interview-with-a-forensic-artist/

The most and least scientifically accurate Bones episodes: http://www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2015/06/11/forensic-anthropology-on-tv-five-most-and-least-accurate-episodes-of-bones/2/

And an analysis of the inaccuracies in the details of forensics shows: http://test.uanews.arizona.edu/story/debunking-hollywood-myths-about-forensic-science

Sources:

Kathy Reichs The “Bones” 100th Show Party. 2010. WENN, Berlin. Web. 31 Oct. 2015. <http://www.aceshowbiz.com/events/Bones+100th+Show+Party/bones_100th_episode_party_32__wenn2800311.html>.

Danna, Jen J. “Forensics 101: Epiphyseal Fusion.” Skeleton Keys. N.p., 13 Dec. 2011. Web. 1 Nov. 2015. <http://www.jenjdanna.com/blog/2011/12/13/forensics-101-epiphyseal-fusion.html>.

C, Crowder, and Austin D. “Age ranges of epiphyseal fusion in the distal tibia and fibula of contemporary males and females.”NCBI. National Center for Biotechnology Information, Sept. 2005. Web. 1 Nov. 2015. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16225203>.

“Angelator.” Bones Wikia. Wikia, 9 June 2008. Web. 31 Oct. 2015. <http://bones.wikia.com/wiki/Angelator>.

Reichs, Kathy. Interview by Ira Flatow. “Meet The Brains Behind “Bones”.” NPR. 31 Aug. 2012. Web. 31 Oct. 2015. <http://www.npr.org/2012/08/31/160391684/meet-the-brains-behind-bones>.

Forensic archeology, to my surprise, is not what we often see on television. Although it involves people who have already passed away, often times we only have remnants of them left – maybe only a bone or two or small pieces of different bones. However, this branch of archeology is much more important than we give it credit for. It serves as a means of bringing about closure to the immediate families of the deceased, whether it is through a proper burial or information regarding their passing. As such, this branch of archeology is much more humanitarian in nature and can be thought of as a way of giving back to society. As we have learned, respect for the dead (often times in terms of a proper burial) is something that we hold to be very important and this dates back to circa 60,000 years ago, so this need for closure is not something new and we finally have a way of obtaining it in cases such as the one written here.

Figure 1: An image of Charlie Armstrong.

In this article from 2010, we see that forensic archeology was used to find a member of the Disappeared, people who were killed and had their bodies hidden during The Troubles, a period of thirty years marked by violence in Ireland. Unlike in television, this is not an easy process. It involves working with many parties, such as ICLVR and the family of the deceased, using tools like LIDAR, and a painstaking amount of time (months to years) on the field and mapping possible locations of the bodies. However, this work does pay off. The primary archeologist in the article said the following about his experience finding the body of one of the Disappeared, Charlie Armstrong:

“I’ve got to know Charlie’s widow, Kathleen, and their children very well over the years and know how much it means to them to bring Charlie home and give him a proper burial in consecrated ground. I feel proud that the team has helped them bring their many years of waiting to an end.”

Figure 2: An image of Inniskeen, the region in which Charlie Armstrong’s remains were found.

While television often spreads misinformation on forensic archeology, it brings the field into the eyes of the public, much like The Big Bang Theory does. Personally, I would not be interested in physics if it weren’t for the introduction to The Big Bang Theory and Michio Kaku (a physicist and public advocate of science). And in both fields, we see an increase in enrollment of students.
——————————————————————————————————————–
If you would like to know more about The Troubles, please take a look below:
BBC News. BBC, n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2015. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/troubles>.
There is also a newer article from the BBC that has pointed to the discovery of other members of the Disappeared below:
“The Disappeared: ‘More than One Body’ Found during Search for Joe Lynskey – BBC News.” BBC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2015. <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-33275457>.
The original article which I referenced is below (this is also the source of my images):
“Using Forensic Archaeology to Find the Disappeared – BBC News.” BBC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Oct. 2015. <http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-11426538>.

Understanding the environment is an essential aspect of an archaeologist’s job to understand the context in which societies formed and lived and artifacts are found.  More specifically, trees can serve as valuable records that describe the climate of an area over the period of hundreds or thousands of years.  Researchers in Southern Africa are using the analysis of radiocarbon dating and tree rings in Baobab trees to interpret how the climate has changed in Southern Africa over the past thousand years, and to use these interpretations to try to form ideas about the societies that developed in these areas.

A Baobab tree in northeastern South Africa

Since tree growth is dependant upon the environment, it can be a good indicator of the climate at a specific time.  Tree growth is a complex process, but temperature and soil moisture are the leading factors contributing to tree growth, thus tree growth can tell us a lot about the temperature and soil moisture of an area at a specific time period, among other things.  

Radiocarbon dating is a common process of evaluating the age of a tree, and radiocarbon samples can also be taken from a tree and can be used to determine such things as the moisture and temperature of tree cellulose at a given time period.  Radiocarbon dating works by measuring the amount of carbon-14 in an object relative to other carbon isotopes in the object and measuring the amount it has decayed over time.  

Tree rings can also usually be used to determine the age of tree, and act as a record of the quality of the tree’s health throughout its lifespan.  Tree ring growth varies with the climate, and thus it can be strong in the spring or weak in the winter and used to determine differences in tree health and of the wider climate’s condition at specific time spans.

Researchers analysed the Baobab trees from Northeastern South Africa for the amount of waterfall in the region and included the timeframe of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the period of time they studied.  The group of researchers from Britain, Romania, and South Africa determined that, “The wettest period was AD1075 or [1075CE] in the Medieval Warm Period, and the driest periods were AD1635, AD1695 and AD1805 during the Little Ice Age.”1

A map of Limpop-Shashe Basin

The data collected can also be used to try to better understand the region at the time the first Bantu-speaking farmers settled the land.  Better understanding the environment in which these farmers developed their land can be valuable knowledge in determining the political and economic systems of the area, of which were based upon the success of agriculture to allow for specialization at the time.2

Recognizing the importance of evaluating the environment in interpreting the context in which people lived and artifacts are found can help better fathom our perceptions of an area at a specific time.  The analysis of radiocarbon dating and the use of tree rings are important tools that researchers can use in their experiments, and this reality is manifested in the importance researchers placed on their analysis of Baobab trees to understand how the climate changed – and how people might have adapted to its change – in the South Africa.  

References:

1,2: http://mg.co.za/article/2015-05-28-silent-giants-unlock-story-of-climate-change

Picture 1: http://media-cdn.tripadvisor.com/media/photo-s/01/77/88/b6/african-baobab-tree.jpg

Picture 2: http://www.sanparks.org/images/conservation/transfrontier/lstfca_combined.png

Further Reading:

http://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2010/07/why_baobab

https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/wild-things/huge-hollow-baobab-trees-are-actually-multiple-fused-stems

Continue reading →

In the winter of 1609, life was bleak for residents of Jamestown colony. Of the 400 settlers, only 61 survived to see the end of 1610. The first group of settlers, consisting of about 200 individuals, predominantly male, were unaccustomed to work and untrained in agriculture. The goal of their colony was mainly to find gold, having been informed that their financial support would end should they not produce valuables. Due in large part to their fixation on finding these valuables, they had little luck growing their own food. Harsh winter and exposure to malaria soon decimated their ranks, and by the end of their first year, only 38 of their original group remained. Having failed to plant or store crops, the settlers resorted to stealing food from the nearby Powhatans, souring the relationship between the two groups and effectively ending their only hope of trading for food.

Rendering of Jamestown, as it may have appeared upon colonization.

Two supply shipments came during 1608, but neither had sufficient provisions and both carried about 70 people, exacerbating the ongoing famine. The winter of 1609-1610 came to be known as the “Starving Time”, with food so scarce that colonists ate everything that did not eat them first: horses, cats, rats, even shoe leather became fair game as the winter raged on.

Eventually, as the famine showed no sign of abating, thoughts turned to cannibalism. One man was executed for slaughtering his pregnant wife, storing her and salting her flesh. However, although there are many accounts of that crime, prior to the recent discovery of the skeletal remains of a 14-year-old girl, there was no physical evidence that cannibalism had taken place at Jamestown. According to the forensic anthropologist who examined her remains, the girl (whom they named “Jane”) was clearly consumed as a last resort, by someone who had no experience butchering. It is believed that Jane was newly deceased and had been removed from her grave shortly after burial in order to be consumed. Jane’s skull has many tentative cuts in the jaw and forehead, and a large part of the rear of her skull was crushed, likely to remove her brain. These marks are consistent with an inexperienced butcher.

Reconstruction of “Jane”, 14-year-old eaten during the “Starving Time”, 1609-1610.

In a case in which the body is removed from the context in which it is buried, much interpretation is required of the archaeologists who examine the site. Jane was found as a disassembled set of bones, her skull and femurs mixed in with the bones of other animals showing signs of consumption. It required the knowledge of archaeological context to connect that cannibalism occurred during the time and place that Jane died, as well as the interpretation of the marks on Jane’s skull. It is thanks to archaeology that scattered remains such as Jane’s are able to be identified and associated with a timeline.

Jane’s mandible, with notches indicating the removal of her flesh.

Sources and Additional Information:

National Geographic

The Smithsonian

Historic Jamestowne

PBS

One of history’s greatest murder mysteries—the sudden, inexplicable death of a powerful warlord—remained unsolved for centuries. What was it that finally cracked the case? Archaeology, feces, and centuries of waiting.

Can Francesco della Scala (1291-1329), more commonly known as “Cangrande,” was born into the immensely powerful della Scala family, a majorly influential political force in 13^th and 14^th century Verona, Italy. He was a feared warlord, friend and host to Dante Alighieri (author of the world-renowned Divine Comedy), and soon rose to become the most influential man in all of Verona.

Della Scala then won control over Treviso, Italy: this was a massive military accomplishment, and the “last act in Cangrande’s long struggle to control the entire region of Veneto in northern Italy,” (Discovery). Immediately after this momentous success, he fell terribly sick and died at the young age of 38. Why?

The official cause of death was due to a polluted spring that Cangrande seemingly drank from, but rumors of his being poisoned began to spread. The entire ordeal was a mystery, and remained that way for centuries; in fact, it wasn’t until very recently, when his body was found by a team of archaeologists in 2004, that the pieces began to fall into place.

Tomb of Cangrande

The role of archaeology in uncovering mysteries such as the murder of Cangrande is absolutely integral—by looking at stomach contents, fecal material, and tooth decay, archaeologists are capable of turning centuries-old rumors into a historical narrative that we can learn from today.

Upon closer examination of the great Cangrande’s body, signs of arthritis, recently regurgitated food, tuberculosis, and potential cirrhosis were discovered, but nothing pointing to his mysterious death was found—until the team began to look at what he most recently consumed before his sudden demise.

Timeline of Autopsy: a.) Stone cover of the sarcophagus b.) Body upon immediately opening stone cover c.) Body wrapped in burial clothing d.) Body at beginning of autopsy

Samples of feces were taken, and analyses showed the presence of chamomile, mulberry, and foxglove, also referred to as Digitalis. Foxglove can cause “gastrointestinal distress, drooling, and…seizures,” and is highly lethal in larger doses (Smithsonian).

Archaeologists were then able to deduce that Cangrande must have been given a deadly amount of foxglove, most likely disguised in a chamomile tea. It is highly likely that this was done to suppress the warlord’s rising and seemingly unstoppable power in Verona and northern Italy. Whether it was done by a political or personal enemy, it isn’t clear—this may be the next age-old mystery for archaeologists to crack.

Sources and Further Reading:

Cangrande Biography by Brown University

700-Year-Old Murder Mystery by Discovery

Mummy Poop Solves Mystery by Smithsonian Magazine

Scholarly Article and Autopsy by Paleopatologia

Transportation, agriculture, and companionship—Humans are significantly affected by interactions with animals. Our modern lifestyles would not be possible without the domestication of animals. When did humans start to have pets? Why did pets and other domestic animals begin to matter? How were they used? These are questions that archaeologists ask themselves and have done their best to answer.

Pets of our ancestors are significantly different than ones we keep today. Using a dog jaw found in Switzerland as evidence, archaeologists have estimated that dogs were first domesticated around 14000 to 14600 years ago, but humans have selectively breaded for

Dog jaw found in Swiss cave (c. 14000 years ago)

desired traits, causing dramatic changes in the physical structure of animals. Different societies selected for different characteristics, including  fur color, ability, and shape. The same qualities are found in cat remains, though cats are estimated to be domesticated around 7500 B.C. While most would like to hear more about the exciting shift of our furry friends from wild hunter to companion, the most striking information regarding the domestication of animals is looking at farm domestication and how groups of people shifted from nomadic bands to pastoral, sedentary groups.

The first animals thought to be domesticated for agricultural endeavors were sheep between 11000 and 9000 B.C., and goats were domesticated shortly after. These animals were used for meat, milk, and fur. Bands of people at this time were still primarily nomadic. Remains for sheep were first found in the Middle East, where there are high proportions of bones of one year old sheep. Dating for the domestication of these animals is possible by looking at the remains of those who lived in the area and finding when human beings were able to process lactose. There was an incredible advantage for those who could digest lactose because of high amounts of calories available from milk. Evidence is also available about milk use through 7000 year old perforated pottery that was used for cheese production. Use of this type of potter was proven by experimental archaeology and chemical analysis of the clay, which found milk fats inside the pottery.

Pottery that was used for cheese straining, found in Poland

Pigs and cattle were domesticated slightly later, around 7000 B.C., but these remains are usually found with societies that were more sedentary.

One of the main reasons to domesticate animals is because there is always a constant, readily available, and reliable source of food. If one goes hunting, there are no chances that he or she will return with meat for his or her community. If one hunts too many animals, the food will spoil, and the food will be wasted. Domesticating animals also provided for suitable manure for farming, hides and wool for coats, and bones for tools. Through the domestication of animals, the concept of staying in one place was a viable option for people. The need to constantly move for a steady supply of food was outdated, and we see the rise of civilizations and larger social organizations as animals domestication begins.

Sources:

http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab57

http://www.wired.com/2010/07/oldest_dog

http://www.jyi.org/issue/our-furry-friends-the-history-of-animal-domestication/

http://www.nature.com/news/archaeology-the-milk-revolution-1.13471

http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/new-discovery-of-7000-year-old-cheese-puts-your-trader-joes-aged-gouda-to-shame-159138568/?no-ist

Further Readings:

http://anthropology.si.edu/archaeobio/images/zederetal_2006_docdom_tig.pdf

http://www.livinganthropologically.com/anthropology/domestication-of-plants-and-animals/

http://www.livinganthropologically.com/anthropology/many-origins-of-agriculture/

Archaeologists often find graves with little to no accompanying documentation of the people buried or their communities and cultures. It is the job of the archaeologist to figure out as much about the deceased as possible by looking at the inscription, composition, and location of their gravestones.

Grave of Casimir Perier in Père Lachaise Cemetery

Pictured above is the grave of a Casimir Perier, born on October 21, 1777, died on May 16, 1832. With the Internet, I can easily learn who he was, how he died, when he died, and what he did when he was alive. But what if I didn’t have access to such a large database? If the only clue I had was the gravestone itself, how would I figure out what kind of person was buried there?

I would have to think like an archaeologist.

Perier’s grave is one of the few tombs with it’s own lawn and garden area. In fact, it is completely surrounded by a fence. This discourages the public from walking up to the grave, and suggests that distance between the two was desired at the time of its erection.

Perrier’s grave is the centerpiece of this section of the cemetery.

Without reading the tomb inscriptions, it’s easy to see that the person buried here was not only important but was prosperous in either money or friends. The monument is made of marble and topped with a bronze statue of Casimir Perier. Marble is more expensive than the stone used for the majority graves seen in the Père Lachaise Cemetery. Furthermore, the grave is almost four meters high, making it one of the tallest and therefore most expensive monuments in the cemetery. The people that buried him made sure his grave was far more impressive than those nearby; a great amount of money went into his grave. Only a wealthy man, or one with wealthy friends could afford to be buried here.

On top of the grave, Perier is garbed in a toga over regular European style clothing, a combination only seen on statues of diplomats. He holds a plaque that reads “ Charte De 1830.” On the bottom of the statue lies an excerpt above lady eloquence that roughly translates to “Seven times elected Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet under Louis Philippe I. Defended eloquence and courage and freedom and national dignity in the interior peace.” I now know exactly who Perier worked for, how long he held his position, when he was most influential, and what direct effect it had on the nation.

Without any information from the internet I’ve discovered that Casimir Perier was known for his eloquence and served as Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet under King Philippe I seven times. He was most influential as Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet in 1830, and was quintessential to upholding France’s dignity. He was greatly valued in life, and his monument in death far outshines those around it. The fencing, however, is used to aesthetically create a barrier from anyone walking through the cemetery. His time as president created disparity between the government and the public.

After confirming that the information gathered from Perier’s tomb is indeed accurate, it’s easy to see why archaeologists use graves to understand the lives of the deceased. The inscription, composition, and location of gravestones are all key in learning more about past communities, and in Caismir Perier’s case, whole nations.

Pictures found at:

http://www.canvas-of-light.com/2010/10/pere-lachaise-cemetery/

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Grave_of_Casimir_Pierre_Perier

Reference websites:

http://www.britannica.com/biography/Casimir-Pierre-Perier

http://www.archive.org/stream/archivesdelartfr13sociuoft#page/336/mode/2up

For more information:

http://www.biography.com/people/casimir-périer-40984#synopsis

http://www.histoire-image.org/site/oeuvre/analyse.php?i=163 (French)