Archaeologists near the coast of Palermo, Sicily, were able to uncover an ancient roman shipwreck filled with amphorae that dates to the second century B.C.E. (Amphorae are basically jars that were used for transportation of wine and olive oil). The shipwreck in the Mediterranean Sea gave archaeologists more information on the specifics of what was being traded and showed the ship must have been heading to some type of buyer. Being able to look through this wreckage allows archaeologists to know more about the life on board as well as the relationship between coastal populations.(Davis-Marks,1).

Finding archaeological sites under water comes with a lot of challenges compared to above ground. For instance, the overall visibility and light conditions is much worse than when digging during the daytime. This also is affected by the actual depth of the site. Along with this, the artifacts are usually buried underneath layers of sediment and trying to remove this is very time consuming and can possible stir up all the sediment which can cause even more problems. In class, we have also talked about how expensive underwater work may be which can be a result of the sheer amount of time going by as well as the equipment needed in order to successfully reveal the artifacts.

More information on the shipwreck from youtube:

At that time Sicily’s wine trade was one of the most profitable activities for entrepreneurs. There was even a Sicilian wine named Mamertino that was so popular Julius Caesar wanted it. The discovery of this shipwreck and what archaeologists were able to uncover shows us a period of peace and prosperity in the Mediterranean. Further research is being done in order to find more information about the specific trade routes that were used to transport all of these goods to different countries. Many ancient shipwrecks included items like these and archaeologists usually link these discoveries to wealth. In recent years, other shipwrecks have also been discovered showing similar items and now finding this brings in more information on the trading framework through out the Mediterranean Sea. “The Mediterranean continually gives us precious elements for the reconstruction of our history linked to maritime trade, the types of boats, the transport carried out,’’ said the superintendent of the sea of the Sicilian region, Valeria Li Vigni, who launched the expedition (Tondo,2). Many discoveries like this are being found in similar areas and this has been said to be one of the most significant in recent years.

More information on this topic: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/italy-rome-shipwreck-roman-mediterranean-b2383807.html

Citations:

(1) Davis-MarksMagazine, Smithsonian. “Ancient Roman Shipwreck Loaded with Wine Amphorae Found off Sicilian Coast.” Smithsonian.Com, Smithsonian Institution, 30 July 2021, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-find-ancient-roman-vessel-near-sicily-180978313/.

(2) Tondo, Lorenzo. “Ancient Roman Ship Laden with Wine Jars Discovered off Sicily.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 28 July 2021, www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/28/ancient-roman-ship-discovered-off-coast-of-sicily.

The flat ontology of the Neolithic society of Çatalhöyük gives us insight into the value of post-humanism as an archeological approach. Flat ontologies and post-humanism are interconnected frameworks that renounce anthropocentrism (Harris and Cipolla 2009). Flat ontologies reject the ranking of different beings, believing them to be all of equal importance. Post-humanism believes that we are not in opposition to nature and non-human animals. Instead, we must understand ourselves in relation to other animals and plants and understand them as beings of agency. While processualists are interested in the economic benefits of animals, post-processualism looks at the dynamic relationship between beings. Donna Haraway believes that we become humans with, rather than against, animals. Archeologists are beginning to grant plants and animals a different role in the past (Harris and Cipolla 2009, 169). Approaching archeology by looking for flat ontologies and applying post-humanist theory can help us gain a broader understanding of joint plant, animal, and human communities.

Çatalhöyük’s burial grounds indicate that they were deeply interrelated with sheep. Çatalhöyük buried their dead in graves under their houses. When excavating, archeologists found a grave with a man and a lamb buried side by side in lot one-hundred and twelve on the North platform (Russel and Düring 2006). We know this burial was not a sacrifice because in Çatalhöyük, sacrificed animals did not have the same burial practices as humans and were never buried beside them. The burial of the lamb was very deliberate and indicates it had quasi-human status (figure 2). The lamb was placed on organic remnants believed to be a mat with their feet in the air. Burying the lamb in this position means their legs would have had to be held the entire time the soil was added. In Çatalhöyük, burial sites were often disturbed to bury more bodies. However, this grave was never disturbed. Sheep were not necessarily domesticated like other animals, and archeologists believed the man was a shepherd with a close relationship with the lamb. The crane dance and the burial at Çatalhöyük illustrate a dynamic relationship of reverence and respect for animals that challenges anthropocentrism.

Çatalhöyük’s burial grounds indicate that they were deeply interrelated with sheep. Çatalhöyük buried their dead in graves under their houses. When excavating, archeologists found a grave with a man and a lamb buried side by side in space one-hundred and twelve on the North platform (Russell and Düring 2006). We know this burial was not a sacrifice because in Çatalhöyük, sacrificed animals did not have the same burial practices as humans and were never buried beside them. The burial of the lamb was very deliberate and indicates it had quasi-human status (figure 2). The lamb was placed on organic remnants believed to be a mat with their feet in the air. Burying the lamb in this position means their legs would have had to be held the entire time the soil was added. In Çatalhöyük, burial sites were often disturbed to bury more bodies. However, this grave was never disturbed. Sheep were not necessarily domesticated like other animals, and archeologists believed the man was a shepherd with a close relationship with the lamb. The crane dance and the burial at Çatalhöyük illustrate a dynamic relationship of reverence and respect for animals that challenges anthropocentrism.

Further reading:

https://academic.oup.com/florida-scholarship-online/book/31462/chapter-abstract/289648496?redirectedFrom=fulltexthttps://www.catalhoyuk.com/archive_reports/2004/ar04_17.html

References:

Ferrando, Francesca. 2016. “Humans Have Always Been Posthuman: A Spiritual Genealogy of Posthumanism.” In Springer eBooks, 243–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-3637-5_15.

Gargett, Katrina. 2017. “Was There a Belief in the Mother Goddess at Çatalhöyük?” Çatalhöyük Research Project. September 13, 2017. https://www.catalhoyuk.com/node/736.

Harris, and Cipolla. 2007. “Multi-Species Archeology.” 2007.

Russell, Nerissa, and Bleda S. Düring. 2006. “Worthy Is the Lamb : A Double Burial at Neolithic Çatalhöyük (Turkey).” Paléorient 32 (1): 73–84. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.2006.5171.

Russell, Nerissa, and Kevin J. McGowan. 2003. “Dance of the Cranes: Crane Symbolism at Çatalhöyük and Beyond.” Antiquity 77 (297): 445–55. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00092516.

After the devastating fire at Notre-Dame Cathedral in April 2019, INRAP (National Institute of Preventive Archaeological Research) archaeologists were asked to help assess the damage and contribute to preservation efforts (Kuta 2022). The INRAP team’s task was to conduct a “preventative dig” beneath a portion of the cathedral floor from February to April 2020 (Willsher 2022). They had a tight schedule and a very specific excavation site to investigate in preparation for the construction of a 30-meter-high, 600-ton scaffold to restore the cathedral’s spire (Willsher 2022). Throughout the excavation and restoration process, two coffins, sculptures, statues, and the remains of original 13th century architecture were discovered (Kuta 2022).

 Learn more about INRAP: https://www.inrap.fr/en 

The most intriguing and revealing discovery were the two lead sarcophagi. The sarcophagi were sent to the forensic institute at the Toulouse University hospital, where medical imaging equipment was used to study where they were from, their diets, and their cause of death (Kuta 2022). Eric Crubézy, a professor of biological anthropology at the University of Toulouse III, supervised the opening of the coffins and noted that both individuals were evidently significant figures in their respective time periods to receive burials in such prestigious tombs (Willsher 2022).

One lead sarcophagus contained the remains of a man in his 30s and had no name plaque (Willsher 2022). The unidentified individual was likely a young and affluent noble from as early as the 14th century whose body was severely deteriorated due to air exposure (Willsher 2022). He has been referred to as “Le Cavalier” because his pelvic bones indicated he was a trained horseman (Willsher 2022). Alongside him in the sarcophagus, archaeologists found cloth and plant material, evidence of embalming, and a crown of flowers, signifying his elite status (Willsher 2022). His teeth showed significant damage, implying a struggle with a chronic disease, while a cranial deformation suggested that he had worn a headdress or headband in infancy (Willsher 2022). The unknown cavalier was buried at the foot of a large cross, a decorative divider that separated the clergy and choir from the rest of the congregation, further indicating his elite status (Willsher 2022).

A high priest who died in 1710 was identified in the second lead sarcophagus (Willsher 2022). Archaeologists were able to confirm who he was due to a brass plaque that stated his name was Antoine de la Porte (Willsher 2022). His body was also severely deteriorated due to oxygen entering the tomb and water exposure from the 1910 flooding of the Seine (Willsher 2022). Bones, head hair, beard hair and some textiles remained in his tomb (Kuta 2022). Antoine de la Porte was a wealthy and influential figure and a canon of the Notre Dame Cathedral who died on Christmas Eve in 1710 at the age of 83 (Willsher 2022). Crubézy explained that de la Porte had “extraordinary good teeth” and they were “remarkable for his age,” demonstrating that “he clearly cleaned his teeth and took care of them” (Willsher 2022). 

Learn more about how the study of teeth contributes to archaeological discoveries:  https://dentistry.uic.edu/news-stories/what-ancient-teeth-can-tell-us-about-humanitys-past/#:~:text=Teeth%20are%20great%20for%20studying,%2C%20Diet%2C%20and%20Human%20Origins. 

Dominique Garcia, the president of INRAP, emphasized that the human remains would be handled with utmost respect throughout the research process (Willsher 2022). Ultimately, the Culture Ministry in Paris will be responsible for deciding what happens to the bodies (Willsher 2022). The intriguing discoveries that arose after the fire provide archaeologists with valuable insights into the people and the rich history intertwined with the Notre Dame Cathedral.

References: 

Kuta, Sarah. “Unraveling the Secrets of the Sarcophagi Found beneath Notre-Dame Cathedral.” Smithsonian.com, December 16, 2022. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/unraveling-the-secrets-of-the-sarcophagi-found-underneath-notre-dame-180981305/#:~:text=Archaeologists%20gleaned%20the%20man’s%20identity,INRAP.

Willsher, Kim. “Notre Dame’s Uncovered Tombs Start to Reveal Their Secrets.” The Guardian, December 9, 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/dec/09/notre-dames-uncovered-tombs-start-to-reveal-their-secrets.

Santorini, otherwise known as Thera, is one of the Greek Cycladic Islands. On it lies Akrotiri, a Greek Bronze Age settlement (Marinatos 1980, 15). Like Pompeii, Akrotiri was destroyed and preserved by a volcano, but unlike Pompeii the city was not covered in graffiti. Most of what we about Akrotiri comes from the many frescoes in its buildings. In Xeste 3, which is believed to be a ritual building, there are two frescoes that focus on saffron: the Mistress of Animals and Saffron Gatherers Fresco (figure 1) and the Adorants Fresco (figure 2). The representation of Saffron in these frescoes shows its ritual importance, likely a result of its usefulness as a dye and medicine (Day 2011, 364).

Both Frescoes represent coming of age rituals. In the Mistress of Animals and Saffron Gatherers fresco, two saffron gatherers pick crocus flowers while a third girl pours the gathered flowers in front of a goddess known as ‘the Mistress of Animals’. She is attended by two exotic pets: a griffin and a blue monkey, who offers her processed flower stamens (Chapin 2002, 8). The fresco includes girls of different ages, indicated by their differing hair growth, which implies that girls participated in the ritual for consecutive years (Davis 1986, 399). After participating, girls would grow out their hair, which was a symbolic end of childhood, marking an entrance into adulthood. This ritual could have been used to acculturate girls into their future roles as women, possibly as wives and mothers. Many of the girls in the Saffron Gatherers fresco are in the beginning stages of puberty. Then, saffron was commonly used to induce abortion and provide menstrual relief (Chapin 2002, 24). The presence of saffron in this ritual could be part of a tradition of teaching girls how to take care of their bodies as women.

In the Adorants fresco, a teenage girl known as the ‘Wounded Woman’ weeps with a bloodied foot. Next to her foot is a detached crocus flower. To the right of the Wounded Woman is a veiled girl, whose veil is saffron-colored and decorated with red dots that likely represent carnelian beads, though it has been conjectured to be splattered blood (Bowers 2021, 18). The fresco appears to center around the Wounded Woman. Chapin estimates her to be around 14-17 years old. Her wound is one of the most controversial aspects of the fresco. Some interpret it to be a representation of childbirth, others the breaking of the hymen, but Chapin believes it to be representative of the Wounded Woman’s first period (Chapin 2002, 16-19). Regardless of the interpretation, all seem to revolve around some sort of coming-of-age process.

The Saffron Gatherers ritual marked an entrance into womanhood, while the Adorants fresco was a representation of a young woman experiencing the pain of womanhood. The inclusion of saffron in these frescoes tells us about the nature of these rituals. The fact that saffron was used in these frescoes indicates its importance to their culture.

To learn more about frescoes from Akrotiri, read:

Morgan, Lyvia. 2005. “New Discoveries and New Ideas in Aegean Wall Painting.” British School at Athens Studies 13: 21-44.

Warren, Peter. 1979. “The Miniature Fresco from the West House at Akrotiri, Thera, and Its Aegean Setting.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies 99: 115-29.

To learn more about women at Akrotiri, read:

Suzanne Peterson Murray. 2004. “Reconsidering the Room of the Ladies at Akrotiri.” XAPIS: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr. Hesperia Supplements 33: 101-130.

References:

Bowers, Madeline. 2021. “Lifting the Veil: Marriage and Mortality in the Xeste 3 Lustral-Basin Frescos at Akrotiri.” Mediterranean Archaeology 34/35: 15-26.

Chapin, Anne. 2002. “Maidenhood and Marriage: The Reproductive Lives of the Girls and Women from Xeste 3, Thera,” Aegean Archaeology 4: 7-25.

Davis, Ellen N. 1986. “Youth and Age in the Thera Frescoes.” American Journal of Archaeology 90 (4): 399-406.

Day, Jo. 2011. “Crocuses in Context: A Diachronic Survey of the Crocus Motif in the Aegean Bronze Age”. Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens 80 (3): 337-379.

Marinatos, Nanno. 1980. Santorini. Athens: D.& I. Mathioulakis.

The standard civilizational progress narrative perpetuated by the culture historians of decades past states that humans through their ingenuity and mastery of their surroundings, were able to domesticate plants. This allowed for sedentary societies, food surpluses, population, growth, specialization, the state, and all of these increases in complexity until we eventually reach “Civilization.” Controlling the plants brought us to where we are today. That phone in your hand, your car, your air conditioner, your Adderall, and your online PDF of the archeology textbook are all products of plant domestication. Controlling this “lower” form of life freed you from the “barbarities” of hunting and gathering.

An illustration depicting the Neolithic Revolution and the rise of sedentary societies. (History Channel)

But was our domestication of plants really a good thing? Dr. Diana Shard of the Bologna Institute for Studies in Social Archaeology argues against the standard narrative. She claims that “man the hunter had been free; man the farmer was in chains” (Shard 165) Her main argument relies on the inequalities produced by agrarian societies. Women were given less status (Shard, 169), large-scale war became possible (Shard, 170), and the newly defined domestic relationship between humans and animals was detrimental. (Shard, 169).

Who wins In the agricultural world, if not the humans? Shard argues that it is the domestic animals as “men became their servant.” (Shard, 167) This may be true to a certain extent. However when viewing the Neolithic revolution through the cultural lens of the domesticated plant (assuming they have a culture), one can see that they are the true victors. Humans have spread their seeds across the entire world and helped them achieve success. Maize and potatoes which started out as American crops are vital in European and African Diets. All around the world we have cleared other plants and removed competition to allow these plants to succeed. According to the USDA, in 2019 the United States of America was home to 143,000 square miles of corn. This is approximately the size of the state of Montana which is the fourth largest state. 

The sun setting over a cornfield in Iowa (USDA)

We have worked hard since the end of the last ice age to ensure the success of these plants. If the goal of life is reproduction and the survival of offspring, domesticated plants have an effective strategy. In non-human Archeology, we are encouraged to change our perspective in order to mitigate our human bias. When we see the world through the eyes of maize, humans work for us, breaking their backs to ensure our survival, being seasonally rewarded with food to eat.

Further Reading:

Interesting corn statistics. Scroll to the bottom of the page for even more statistics.

Neolithic Revolution information

Neolithic revolution information with an unfortunate National Geographic paywall. If you open an incognito mode tab, you should be able to bypass the paywall.

Works Cited:

Capehart, Tom and Proper, Susan “Corn Is America’s Largest Crop in 2019” Economic Research Service in Research and Science. www.usda.gov/media/blog/2019/07/29/corn-americas-largest-crop-2019 Accessed 25 Oct. 2023

Shard, Diana. “The Neolithic Revolution: An Analogical Overview.” Journal of Social History, vol. 7, no. 2, 1974, pp. 165–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3786353. Accessed 25 Oct. 2023.

The field of Forensic Anthropology is an interesting one because it has both modern-day and historic applications. Forensic Anthropology can be applied in a modern context in a legal capacity, but by applying Forensic Anthropological Techniques to past human remains, we can discover who they were, how they perished, who they were related to, where they came from, et cetera, and thereby are presented with a wealth of information on an individual and their circumstances, which can inform us on the era they lived in. Such discoveries are always significant, such as in the case of the “Princes in the Tower;” Prince Edward V and Duke Richard IV of York. 

In 1483, during the “War of the Roses,”  Richard III seized the throne of England from his nephews Edward V (age 12) and Richard IV (9 yrs.), confining them to the Tower of London, allegedly for their own safety, where less and less was seen of them before they mysteriously vanished from all records. Of course, everyone assumed that power-hungry Richard III had done away with his nephews, but nothing could be proved until near two centuries later, when construction on the Tower in 1674 led to the discovery of a wooden chest containing what were believed to be the bones of the vanished princes, clad in velvet. They were interred in Westminster abbey, where they have only been disturbed once [The Princes in the Tower].

In 1933 the bones were examined by Lawrence E. Tanner and William Wright, Anthropologists from Cambridge University, who determined that the bones belonged to two boys, ages 10 and 12 (the ages of the Princes at the time) who had been related by blood [Wallace/Camping-Harris, 2022]. Their examination of the jawbones revealed several missing teeth, which they likened to a congenital condition suffered by the Princes’ paternal grandmother Dutchess Cecily of York. But this was far from definite. In 2012 the remains of King Richard III were discovered and examined more thoroughly. These results were compared to Tanner and Wright’s findings, and some inconsistencies were found. For example, Richard III, uncle of Edward V and Richard IV, did not exhibit the same dental condition of their nephews’ remains and their grandmother’s [The Princes in the Tower], which raised questions about Richard III’s relations to the remains, and whether or not the remains were the Princes’ at all. These questions still have yet to be answered. The British Crown has refused any and all requests to further examine the remains. The only concrete evidence we have is that the bones belonged to children, though some speculate they could have belonged to more than 2 individuals. The proposed dental link between the remains and Dutchess Cecily is intriguing, but too small to draw full conclusions from. With modern technology, far more detailed analysis such as DNA sequencing could be conducted, but not unless the Crown consents to the bones’ further disturbance. 

References

Wallace, Naomi and Camping-Harris, Marnie. 11/06/2022. “Skeletons in Westminster: Is it Time to Solve the Mystery of the Princes in the Tower?” Retrospect Journal (Accessed 9/29/2023)

“The Princes in the Tower,” Historic Royal Palaces (Accessed 9/30/2023)

https://www.hrp.org.uk/tower-of-london/history-and-stories/the-princes-in-the-tower/#:~:text=The%20disappearance%20of%20two%20princes,debated%20by%20historians%20centuries%20later.

“Edward V and Richard, Duke of York,” Westminster Abbey Commemorations (Accessed 9/30/2023)

https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/royals/edward-v-richard-duke-of-york

“Research reveals the DNA of the ‘Princes in the Tower,’” University of Essex News (Accessed 9/29/2023)

https://www.essex.ac.uk/news/2018/07/11/research-reveals-dna-of-the-%E2%80%98princes-in-the-tower%E2%80%99

Further Reading

More on a Murder: The Deaths of the ‘Princes in the Tower’ and Historiographical Implications for the Regimes of Henry VII and Henry VIII (Tim Thorton, University of Huddersfield)

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1468-229X.13100

Recent Investigations regarding the Princes in the Tower (Lawrence E. Tanner and William Wright, Cambridge University)

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/archaeologia/article/abs/irecent-investigations-regarding-the-fate-of-the-princes-in-the-tower/CD4614DCAEBE53B52DBBC97250556780

“Bog Bodies”, or cadavers found preserved in the peat bogs of northwestern Europe, are some of the most well preserved human remains discovered in archaeology. Because their bodies and belongings are often so intact, they garner quite a bit of speculation as to the circumstances of their life and death. Many have visible wounds and clear indications of violent death, often as products of religious sacrifice.  We are given a shockingly detailed piece of a much larger and more complicated context that is not fully understood. 

Peat bogs are composed of a tightly packed matrix of sphagnum plants. When these plants die, they release a sugar compound known as sphagnan that neutralizes nutrients in the water. This makes peat bogs a difficult environment for decay-causing bacteria to grow. Sphagnum also releases acid into the water, which ‘tans’ the cadaver’s skin, making it leathery and more resistant to damage (Moesgaard). This is why the faces of some bog bodies are so striking, as you can see every little detail of their expression in death, like in the case of the Grauballe man (Kuiper, Kathleen). 

The Tollund Man is the most well preserved bog body to date, with even the sheepskin hat on his head intact. His head is topped with long hair in a braid, and only his arms and legs appear skeletal. He was found in 1950, and like many bog body discoveries, those who first found him thought he could have died quite recently. In reality his remains have been dated to 2,400 years ago (McGreevy, Nora). Several parts of his body have been studied, including attempts at DNA testing of samples collected from his femur and the base of his skull.The contents of his stomach revealed that his last meal was of porridge and fish (McGreevy, Nora).

All of these details can be known about bodies like the Tollund Man’s, but the question is, should we be invading his resting body to find them out? Information about his environment and living habits is invaluable when collected, to better understand the culture and world that he lived in so long ago, but is that enough? Did those who placed him in his resting place imagine that he would be on display in a museum for over half a century now? The ethics of unearthing and displaying human remains are quite complicated, as with any case where burial is involved.

References:

McGreevy, Nora. July 22, 2021“What Did Tollund Man, One of Europe’s Famed Bog Bodies, Eat before He Died?” Smithsonian.com

Kuiper, Kathleen. “9 Noteworthy Bog Bodies (and What They Tell Us).” Encyclopædia Britannica.

Guerra-Doce, E., C. Rihuete-Herrada, R. Micó, R. Risch, V. Lull, and H. M. Niemeyer. April 6, 2023. “Direct Evidence of the Use of Multiple Drugs in Bronze Age Menorca (Western Mediterranean) from Human Hair Analysis.” Nature News.

Magazine, Smithsonian. May 1, 2017. “Europe’s Famed Bog Bodies Are Starting to Reveal Their Secrets.” Smithsonian.com.

“Moss Magic – Sphagnum Preservation.” Moesgaard Museum. Accessed October 1, 2023.

Further Reading:

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/bog-bodies/

https://www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/frugal-last-meal-man-2400-years-ago-scientists-see-signs-human-sacrifi-rcna1463

In this recent week of class, we discussed early human techniques and their evolution in constructing various stone tools. We reviewed the types of percussion and hammering, and the four innovations in stone knapping: The Oldowan, Acheulian, Levallois, and Blade Technology techniques. These methods occurred alongside cognitive development in early humans. For instance, spatial awareness allowed for precise strikes and removal of flakes from a core stone. Goal-setting enabled the visualization of a final tool and a method to complete that end. Early humans exhibited significant creativity in devising stone tool techniques. Hence, it is hard to believe that the archaeological record was limited to four construction techniques. Early human ingenuity must have resulted in other methods of tool manufacturing. 

Upon investigation, I discovered that ancient craftsmen employed heat treatment to temper their tools. Archaeological research from South Africa dates the earliest use of heat treatment to 45,000-70,000 years ago… stone tools were heated to roughly 600 degrees and likely buried under fire to make the stone easier to shape (Fountain). After heat treatment, less force was needed to flake a core. Percussion could be done with greater control and precision. Experimental archaeology was applied to validate these claims of heat treatment. Archaeologists matched the color of uncovered silcrete blades on the South African Coast by heating and flaking silcrete themselves (Fountain). 

A silcrete nodule showing experimental changes in texture and color resulting from exposure to heat.

Photo Credit: Science/AAAS

Heat treatment was a prevalent practice. According to Mary Louise Kelly from All Things Considered on NPR, “Scientists say it [heat treatment] may have actually happened much earlier – 300,000 years ago. That’s based on a study of rock shards in the Middle East.” Further, “heat treatment first occurred in Europe about 25,000 years ago” (Fountain). Evidently, heat treatment was integral to the survival of different early human communities; it was an intercontinental and enduring innovation.  

The adoption of heat treatment also transpired with growth in the cognition of early humans. Several skills were developed to produce tempered crafts. Sophisticated, controlled use of fire building was one adaptation (Early Humans Used). An understanding of careful planning and multi-tasking was another adaptation, as explained by Wadley and Prinsloo, “the making of compound adhesives involve[d] not only careful planning, but also multi-tasking…The artisan need[ed] to simultaneously mix ingredients, control fire temperature, and mentally rotate stone tools to create the desired composite product.” The archaeological record dispels ignorant notions of early humans being primitive. In actuality, they exhibited cognitive complexity and adeptly utilized their resources for survival. 

The photo shows heated artifacts in silcrete made by Homo sapiens at Klipdrift Shelter, South Africa. Photo: Katja Douze, University of the Witwatersrand

Photo Credit: (Humans Used Fire)

Several other early human misconceptions are challenged by the discovery of heat treatment. First, early humans did not manufacture stone tools through only knapping and flaking. Second, fire was not only used for protection, cooking, and warmth. Third and lastly, heat treatment existed long before archaeologists’ first discovery of it in Europe, which was dated to 25,000 years ago (Fountain). Ultimately, heat treatment exemplifies transformative, early human adaptability and has clarified contemporary misperceptions of their capabilities. 

Reference List

“Early Humans Used Innovative Heating Techniques to Make Stone Blades.” ScienceDaily,

 October 20, 2016. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/10/161020092107.htm. 

Fountain, Henry. “Early Humans Used Heat to Shape Their Tools.” The New York Times, August

 13, 2009. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/18/science/18obfire.html. 

“Humans Used Fire Earlier than Previously Known.” University of Bergen. Accessed October 1,

 2023. https://www.uib.no/en/news/101760/humans-used-fire-earlier-previously-known.  

“Scientists Find Proof Early Humans Could Control Fire Temperature in Tempering Tools.” NPR,

 October 6, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/10/06/920859196/scientists-find-proof-early-humans-could-control-fire-temperature-in-tempering-tv.  

Wadley, L., Prinsloo, C. Linda. “Experimental Heat Treatment of Silcrete Implies Analogical

 Reasoning in the Middle Stone Age.” Journal of Human Evolution, April 5, 2014. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047248414000621#:~:text=Heat%20treatment%20of%20rocks%20is,an%20attribute%20of%20complex%20cognition.  

Additional Readings:

Delagnes, Anne, Patrick Schmidt, Katja Douze, Sarah Wurz, Ludovic Bellot-Gurlet, Nicholas J

 Conard, Klaus G Nickel, Karen L van Niekerk, and Christopher S Henshilwood. “Early Evidence for the Extensive Heat Treatment of Silcrete in the Howiesons Poort at Klipdrift Shelter (Layer PBD, 65 Ka), South Africa.” PloS one, October 19, 2016. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5070848/. 

Stolarczyk, Regine E, and Patrick Schmidt. “Is Early Silcrete Heat Treatment a New Behavioural 

Proxy in the Middle Stone Age?” PloS one, October 1, 2018. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6166942/.  

Aztec society is one of the most well known native tribes in the world. They’re most well known for their intricate infrastructure and religion, however they had a very distinct and powerful military as well. The Aztecs heavily relied on warfare to smother invading tribes, gain resources and territory, and collect sacrifices. To gain such power, warriors depended heavily on weaponry such as bows and arrows, spears, javelin, clubs, swords, and specifically, the atlatl. While a fun word to say, it is a deadly weapon when used properly. The atlatl consisted of two separate mechanisms, a javelin or large dart and a wooden hook to sling the projectile to the users target. According to aztecsandtenochtitlan.com, this weapon was specifically used for long distance and could pierce chainmail armor of European soldiers and leather of other mesoamerican tribes. Almost every warrior in the tribe of city-state had the knowledge of how to wield an atlatl with its obsidian headed projectile. 

In their society, it was mandatory for men to participate in warfare, it was viewed as them fulfilling their role as a man and honoring the gods, specifically their war and sun god Huitzilopochtli. Since the Aztecs relied so heavily on warfare and were fearful of the repercussions of having an unworthy sacrifice to their sun god, the Aztecs made a gruesome and morally expensive offering, human sacrifice. 

The reasoning for human sacrifice is circumstantially very sound however. The society feared that Huitzilopochtli would stop the sun, ceasing all life on earth. Typically, Aztecs would turn to prisoners of war as the sacrifice, never encouraging the slaughter of citizens in the city-state. In most cultures of the ancient times, priests would be ranked very high in the hierarchy, but according to mexicolore.co.uk, the priests did not have it easy. They were tasked with performing the human sacrifices with obsidian blades. These obsidian blades were made slowly by chipping away shards of the rock into an impossibly sharp edged weapon. The Aztecs used obsidian as projectile points and other tools throughout their community. Creating a knife or javelin head for an atlatl was a very intricate and trying process, one wrong strike to the obsidian and the tool would split in half, ruined. Obsidian was a precious, dangerous, and effective stone. In fact, the stone was so effective in their weaponry that the civilization didn’t even find the need to advance past it and towards metal. 

Aztec culture and society was very complex and successful, they developed religion, agriculture, warfare and society, with one common thread, obsidian. Its relevance in all aspects of their culture made it a hot commodity and traced throughout Aztec history.

Resources:

“Aztec Warriors: Rank and Warrior Societies – History.” 2014. History. July 23, 2014. https://www.historyonthenet.com/aztec-warriors-rank-and-warrior-societies

Cartwright, Mark. 2015. “Aztec Warfare.” World History Encyclopedia. March 18, 2015. https://www.worldhistory.org/Aztec_Warfare/.

Mineo, Liz. 2018. “Unearthing the Secrets of the Aztecs.” Harvard Gazette. April 9, 2018. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2018/04/unearthing-the-secrets-of-the-aztecs/#:~:text=MATOS%20MOCTEZUMA%3A%20The%20Aztec%20religion.

Mexicolore. 2019. “Aztec Social Classes.” Mexicolore.co.uk. 2019. https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/you-contribute/aztec-social-classes.

Roos, Dave. 2018. “Human Sacrifice: Why the Aztecs Practiced This Gory Ritual.” HISTORY. History.com. October 11, 2018. https://www.history.com/news/aztec-human-sacrifice-religion.

Cartwright, Mark. 2022. “Obsidian in Mesoamerica.” World History Encyclopedia. August 24, 2022. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/2060/obsidian-in-mesoamerica/.

“An Obsession with Obsidian | the Engines of Our Ingenuity.” n.d. Engines.egr.uh.edu. Accessed October 2, 2023. https://engines.egr.uh.edu/episode/1086.

Further Reading:

Here is a more in depth interview about Aztec civilization in general: https://www.worldhistory.org/Aztec_Civilization/

Here is a journal on how different Mesoamerican civilization utilized obsidian: https://www.jstor.org/stable/827900