Archaeology never ceases to amaze us with its ability to unearth ancient games, offering us glimpses into the pastimes and cultures of long-forgotten civilizations. Among these fascinating discoveries lies Senet, an ancient board game (Figure 1) that has piqued the curiosity of archaeologists and history enthusiasts alike. In this exploration, we will delve into the historical significance and gameplay of Senet, a captivating archaeological find from ancient Egypt.

Senet, known as ‘the game of passing,’ once held sway in the world of ancient Egyptian entertainment, boasting a rich history spanning over 3,500 years. Its discovery by archaeologists has sparked renewed interest in unraveling its cultural significance.

The game of Senet, cherished in the heart of ancient Egypt, pitted two players against each other, employing casting sticks to determine their moves. The aim of the game is to be the first player to successfully move your pieces around the board while avoiding the hazards present on the board. The gameplay granted players the ability to advance their pieces, strategically outflank their opponents, or craftily obstruct their adversary’s path.

The final quintet of squares (squares 26–30) on the Senet board often bore embellishments. Square 26 typically showcased the symbol for ‘good’ (nefer), bestowing an extra turn upon the player landing there. Square 27 portrayed a water hazard, penalizing any game piece landing on it by expelling it from the grid, preventing the piece from progressing further on the board. 

Senet transcended its role as a mere pastime in ancient Egypt, becoming intricately intertwined with the concept of the afterlife, a cornerstone belief in Egyptian culture. The unearthing of game boxes and depictions of Senet in numerous tombs, including those belonging to esteemed figures like Queen Nefertari (Figure 2) and King Tutankhamun, who, notably, was “ buried with no fewer than five game boxes” (Zwang 2017), underscores the game’s symbolic representation of the journey to the afterlife. Specific squares mirrored the challenges and obstacles an individual might encounter on their journey through the afterlife. In this context, Senet evolved beyond the confines of a conventional board game, emerging as a symbolic manifestation of the eternal struggle for immortality.

Furthermore, it is also believed that “in the minds of the Egyptians, this senet gaming ritual could be performed by both the living and the dead” (Piccione 2020). Deceased individuals used it as a magical safeguard during their afterlife journey, while the living performed it to ensure a safe future journey after death. Additionally, it allowed the living to experience the netherworld journey without death, uniting with Ra, their sun god. 

The discovery of Senet and its artifacts underscores the enduring power of archaeology to unveil hidden facets of ancient civilizations. Senet was more than just a board game; it served as a bridge between the living and the afterlife, deeply woven into the beliefs and rituals of ancient Egypt. As we continue our journey of exploration into the world’s archaeological treasures, Senet remains a poignant reminder of the cultural wealth buried beneath the sands of time, patiently waiting to be rediscovered and celebrated.

Reference List:

Zwang, Danielle. 2017. “Senet and Twenty Squares: Two Board Games Played by Ancient Egyptians.” The Met,  July 19, 2017. 

Piccione, Peter A. 2020. “GAMING WITH THE GODS: The Game of Senet and Ancient Egyptian Religious Beliefs.”

Photo Sources:

Figure 1: Preskar, Peter. 2021. “Senet — The World’s Oldest Known Board Game.” Medium. March 21. 

Figure 2: Zwang, Danielle. 2017. “Senet and Twenty Squares: Two Board Games Played by Ancient Egyptians.” The Met,  July 19, 2017.

Additional Content: 

If you are interested in learning more about how to play Senet visit this page: 

https://otagomuseum.nz/athome/how-to-play-senet

If you are interested in learning more about board games discovered by archaeologists visit this page: 

https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/anbd/hd_anbd.htm

In 1587, a group of English pioneers arrived in modern day Roanoke, Virginia to establish a settlement in the “New World.” After some time, resources ran low for the settlers. Fearful of an unsuccessful expedition, Sir Walter Raleigh, the statesman of the settlement, organized “…another expedition…” to regain supplies and allow “…women and children…to make the voyage” (“The Lost Colony”). The settlement split for approximately three years, sending some men back to Great Britain, and leaving the remaining men behind in Roanoke. After three years, the voyagers returned with women, children and supplies. However, to their shock, Roanoke island was unoccupied. The 115 men, women, and children had vanished for no discernible reason. Upon investigation, Raleigh’s crew discovered “…two clues to their [the missing settlers] whereabouts: the word “Croatoan” carved on a prominent post and “Cro” etched into a tree” (Lawler).Historians have speculated the reason for the disappearance of the settlers ever since. 

Similar to many unresolved mysteries such as the building of the pyramids and Stonehenge, the disappearance of Roanoke led to a catalog of improbable explanations. In fact, the popular television show American Horror Story has an entire season dedicated to a Roanoke conspiracy theory, revolving around supernatural intervention. 

Despite the many fanciful explanations for the disappearance of the settlers, the more commonly accepted academic explanation laid in the etchings on the posts and trees. Croatoan was the name of a Native American tribe found in modern day North Carolina and Virginia, which led historians to conclude a negative relationship between the Native Americans and settlers may have contributed to the disappearance. In fact, TheLostColony.com, Roanoke Island’s tourist website, claims “…Croatoan Amerindians accuse[d] the Roanoke Amerindians of killing the 15 men left…” by the settlers, which at first glance, suggests a conflict sparked between the groups, leading to the settler’s disappearance. However, even this theory is debatable, since it relies heavily on circumstantial evidence directed towards the Croatoan, and lacks the support of archaeological records

The mystery remained unsolved until 2015, when archaeological remains “…suggest(ed) at least some of the abandoned colonists may have survived, possibly splitting into two camps that made their homes with Native Americans” (Lawler). Additionally, archaeologists discovered “…a sword hilt, broken English bowls, and a fragment of a slate writing tablet still inscribed with a letter…” 50 miles southeast of Roanoke (Lawler). The findings suggested the settlers struggled to survive the winter months in the newly established colony, and merged with native tribes as a result.

 Ironically, archaeological findings contradict nearly every aspect of previous theories, which regarded the relationship between the tribes and settlers as violent and combative. Roanoke is a case study for the importance of archaeology in modern society. Prior to the discovery of archaeological remains, historians held a harmful, false interpretation of Roanoke’s past. As a result, some likely negatively viewed the Native American tribes near the Island. If not for these findings, Roanoke’s past would remain unsettled, and therefore open to other mendacious interpretations. 

References:

Lawler, Andrew. “We Finally Have Clues to How the Lost Roanoke Colony Vanished.” Culture, 7 Aug. 2015, www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/150807-lost-colony-roanoke-hatteras-outer-banks-archaeology.

“The Lost Colony.” The Lost Colony, www.thelostcolony.org/#:~:text=In%201587%2C%20117%20English%20men.

Photos:

Figure 1. Jarus, Owen. “What Happened to the “Vanished” Colonists at Roanoke?” Livescience.com, 20 Nov. 2021, www.livescience.com/vanished-colonists-at-roanoke.

Figure 2. Cascone, Sarah. “Archaeologists May Have Finally Solved the Mystery of the Disappearance of Roanoke’s Lost Colony.” Artnet News, 6 Nov. 2020, news.artnet.com/art-world/archaeologists-mystery-lost-roanoke-lost-colony-1921594.

Additional Information: 

Video of conspiracy theories – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UDdt_ZHGcUA

More clues about the “Lost Colony” – https://www.cnn.com/videos/us/2012/05/07/dnt-nc-lost-colony-clue.wral

In early 2023, archaeologists in France made an intriguing discovery – the oldest known bow and arrow outside of Africa, dating back approximately 54,000 years. This remarkable find predates the oldest African bow and arrow, which is estimated to be around 64,000 years old. The arrowheads uncovered at the French site were classified as Neronian, pinpointing their origin to the transitional period between the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic eras.

Within the Grotte Mandrin cave, more than 300 arrowheads were unearthed, hinting at a habitation site for early Homo sapiens (Figure 1). Prior to their arrival, the region had been populated by Neanderthals, who eventually vanished around 40,000 years ago. The arrowheads exhibited clear signs of chipping and wear, suggesting that these Homo sapiens employed specialized tools for launching their arrows. This has led to a hypothesis that the Homo sapiens might have played a role in the decline of the Neanderthals, due to their advanced weaponry and tools.

To test their theory that the arrowheads were used with some form of projectile mechanism, archaeologists conducted replication experiments (Figure 2). They created replicas of the arrowheads and assessed their effectiveness when used in various ways. It was found that these arrowheads were most efficient when paired with a bow. Their small and lightweight design made them unsuitable for merely throwing at animals, as they required the additional force of a bow for effective use.

Further analysis of the arrowheads’ chipping and damage patterns on the replicas closely matched those of the original arrowheads discovered. This provided strong evidence that these arrowheads were utilized for hunting larger animals and potentially even in conflicts involving humans, such as the Neanderthals. Additionally, artifacts from both Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens were found in the same strata, raising the possibility that these two groups coexisted (Hunt 2023).

Notably, no evidence of actual bows was found at the site, which isn’t surprising given the challenges of wood and string preservation over such an extensive period. Archaeologists do hypothesize that the bow and arrow technology might have been introduced to Europe from Africa because of the earlier discoveries of arrowheads in Africa (Kuta 2023).

Before the 2023 discovery in France, the oldest evidence of bow and arrow usage outside of Africa was in Sri Lanka, dating back to around 48,000 years ago (Fox 2020). Interestingly, these arrowheads in Sri Lanka were discovered alongside bone tools made from monkey bone. The presence of Neanderthal and modern Homo sapiens artifacts in the same strata in Sri Lanka also fueled a similar debate about their interactions and coexistence. These discoveries continue to provide valuable insights into the prehistoric world and the development of early weaponry and tools.

Additional Links:

https://theconversation.com/what-a-bone-arrowhead-from-south-africa-reveals-about-ancient-human-cognition-137651

https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-11086110

Citations:

Fox, Alex. June 17, 2020. “Evidence of Early Bow-and-Arrow Hunting Discovered in Sri Lanka.” Smithsonian Magazine Smart News. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/proposed-earliest-traces-bow-and-arrow-hunting-eurasia-found-sri-lanka-180975112/.

Hunt, Katie. February 23, 2023. “Earliest evidence of bow and arrow use outside Africa unearthed in France.” CNN Space & Science. https://www.cnn.com/2023/02/23/world/france-cave-earliest-bow-arrow-use-outside-africa-scn/index.html#:~:text=The%20arrowheads%20were%20found%20in,early%20modern%20humans%20and%20Neanderthals.&text=The%20earliest%20clear%20evidence%20of,pivotal%20moment%20in%20human%20history.

Jordans, Franks. February 10, 2022. “Southern France was already irresistible to humans 54,000 years ago.” The Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh.com.au/world/europe/southern-france-was-already-irresistible-to-humans-54-000-years-ago-20220210-p59v8v.html.

Kuta, Sarah. February 23, 2023. “Archery May Have Arrived in Europe Thousands of Years Earlier Than Thought.” Smithsonian Magazine Smart News. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archery-may-have-arrived-in-europe-thousands-of-years-earlier-than-thought-180981690/.

By Luna Kang

On July 25, 2022, a new Crowfield fluted point was unearthed and donated to the New York State Museum. This finding was recovered from the Hudson River, Magdelen Island, in Dutchess County, New York (New York State Museum, 2022). Artifacts similar to this point are essential to the archaeological world because they allow archaeologists to date the area it was found in and possibly answer hypotheses about the people living there at the time.

These Crowfield points range in size from 40-65 mm in length and 22-35 mm in width. Points like these are typically made from flaking stone to create smaller, easy-to-work-with shards. For this point, the material that was used was Chert, a type of quartz (Hobart King, 2023). They are then sharpened and shaped utilizing both stone and antler tools. Crowfield points are biface, which means they are worked over on both sides of the point. They are also fluted down the middle to make room for attaching a handle for a spear or small knife tool. Different areas and times have various stone tools. An example of one type is the Acheulean hand axes (Meir Finkel and Ran Barkai, 2018). These axes were some of the most utilized and advanced tools of the late Pleistocene era. Although these tools were used for more everyday use, the Crowfield points are connected to them because both show a level of advancement in stone tools throughout history.

There is more to these little points than just what they’re made of and how they’re made. They can indicate when ancient people officially settled an area. Before the uncovering of this specific point, the arrival of people to the Hudson River region was estimated to be around 6,000 years ago. With this new evidence, it is now estimated to have been inhabited by indigenous peoples anywhere from the Late Ice Age period (The New York State Museum, 2022). The way these tools are dated comes from two different methods: through relative dating compared to other similar artifacts; or through radiocarbon dating. Relative dating allows archaeologists to estimate the time when an artifact existed. Since this point is made precisely like other Crowfield points, it is easy to see why archaeologists would put this one in the same group. Radiocarbon dating, however, allows scientists to know the exact date when an artifact existed. The only issue with radiocarbon dating is that it is effective until 1950. In 1950, the nuclear bomb tests drastically changed the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, preventing archaeologists from using this dating method past that date. By dating these points, archaeologists can uncover more secrets about ancient indigenous Americans.

Further Research:
Lithic Points
Archaeology in the Hudson Valley Region

Reference List:

Finkel, Meir and Ran Barkai, The Acheulean Handaxe Technological Persistence: A Case of Preferred Cultural Conservatism?, March 26, 2018: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-prehistoric-society/article/acheulean-handaxe-technological-persistence-a-case-of-preferred-cultural-conservatism/EB98AE73E58D675A8C8C404136BBDB3C

King, Hobart, Chert: What is it? Where is it from? What is it used for?, 2023: https://geology.com/rocks/chert.shtml

New York State Museum, Science Tuesday: Late Ice Age Stone Point, July 25, 2022: https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/research-collections/archaeology/native-american-archaeology/news

Ontario Archaeology Society: London Chapter, Crowfield Points, 2023: https://oaslondonchapter.ca/southwestern-ontario-projectile-points/

 With the declining birth rate and aging population, East Asian countries are facing many questions about the sustainability of their societies. In recent years, South Korea has been mentioned as the country with one of the lowest fertility rates in the world, crudely around 0.7-0.9, and Japan has become the fastest-aging country in the world. People choose not to have children for multiple reasons. Low employment rates and inflation of housing prices make the cost of raising a child immensely high. Also, the cultural changes and the empowerment of women frees them from the used-to-be mandatory fertility responsibility. 

More and more people choose to own a pet to fulfill their emotional needs. And these pets have become so important to them in the urbanized society where the connection between people is so weak. With this, the pet cremation service started to flourish in these East Asian countries. According to the investigation poll from South Korea’s Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, in 2018, 55.7% of the participants hoped to use animal cremation facilities when their pets died. The cremation fee can be charged as much as 500,000 South Korean won (430 USD), but people still choose to pay for the service and give their pets a proper goodbye. 

 After the pandemic, there is even a pet boom. More and more people are having pets and the diversity of the pet cremation service also increases. The ashes of the pets are made into diamonds instead of buried in a cemetery. From an anthropological point of view, this phenomenon might be caused by the shrinking home size and the expansion of the urbanized area. Modern people living in apartments don’t have private gardens where they can bury their pets, and the expansion of the city leads to less usable land for pet cemeteries, and the pet owners have to bury their pets in farther suburban areas. Thus, turning the cremated ashes into portable jewelry becomes a great idea. What’s more, pet cremation can be linked to the Buddhist tradition that is rooted in the East Asian cultural ground. The Buddhists treat every creature as equal, and they believe that animals can be transmitted to human beings in their next life if they are blessed with love and piety. The pet owners in East Asia could have adopted this idea unconsciously and be willing to believe that they will see their pets in the next life. Anyhow, humans are not superior to other animal species, and the world does not only belong to us. And I believe that pet funeral services will become more and more popular in the years to come.

Further Reading:

https://www.lonite.com/education/recent-pet-funeral-situations-in-japan

Work Cited:

News, D. (2009, July 28). In Japan, funerals offered for animals. Deseret News. https://www.deseret.com/2009/7/28/20331205/in-japan-funerals-offered-for-animals

Kang, T. (2019, May 3). Why South Korea is seeing a boom in mobile animal cremation services. – The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2019/05/why-south-korea-is-seeing-a-boom-in-mobile-animal-cremation-services/

UNESCAP. “Total Fertility Rates in East Asia in 2020, by Country or Region (in Average Number of Live Births per Woman).” Statista, Statista Inc., 9 Sep 2020, https://www.statista.com/statistics/615658/total-fertility-rates-in-east-asia-2016-by-country/

In December of 2022, construction crews discovered an ancient burial site in Gaza. The crew made this discovery while working on an Egyptian-funded housing project near Jabaila, a city in the northern Gaza Strip. Since this discovery, crews of archaeologists have been working to excavate the massive site that covers an area of 2,700 square meters (Adwan 2023: 1). These crews are being overseen by French organizations. Luckily for the archaeologists, the graves are remarkably well-preserved, with many containing skeletal remains of Ancient Roman aristocrats. Not only is the site intact, but nothing has been stolen from the graves, which is rare according to Anthony Dutemple, who is the head of mission in Palestine for PUI, a French humanitarian group (Nowakowski 2023: 1).

The cemetery is about a mile from the ancient Mediterranean city of Anthedon, which was once inhabited by Romans. The area has a rich history that stems from its involvement in ancient trade routes between Levant and Egypt. Alongside the 125 tombs that have been discovered, there have also been two rare sarcophagi that are made out of lead. One of these sarcophagus was decorated with images of grapes, while the other was decorated with images of dolphins.

This site is helping to provide more information on human history. According to Rene Elder, a French archaeologist who is leading the dig, the tombs have “revealed a huge amount of information about the cultural material and also about the state of health of the population and the pathologies from which this population may have suffered” (Adwan 2023: 1). In addition to information on the health of the population, the site is providing information on the burial methods and funeral rituals in Roman times. Aside from this, the cemetery serves as a way to preserve the history of Palestinians, Romans, the Gaza Strip, and humans as a collective species.

When I read about this discovery, I thought back to our class discussions on the ethics of unearthing burial sites. Specifically, I thought of the controversies surrounding Native American burial sites and the laws that protect them, such as NAGPRA. Personally, I wouldn’t care if my remains were excavated for research purposes, but I understand that many people would disagree with this statement. Not only are the graves of these people being disturbed, which could be something that they did not want to happen, but the skeletal remains are going to be sent out of Gaza for additional analysis. The disturbance of and removal of skeletal remains from their resting places could be a source of controversy in the future.

Citation:

Adwan, Issam. 2023. “Archaeologists Unearth the Largest Cemetery Ever Discovered in Gaza and Find Rare Lead Sarcophogi.” AP, September 24, 2023. https://apnews.com/article/gaza-roman-sarcophagi-archaeology-6db292772c3f013575d2ad1a91315d14

Nowakowski, Teresa. 2023. “Roman-Era Cemetery With Over 100 Tombs Unearthed in Gaza.” Smithsonian Magazine, August 2, 2023. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/roman-era-cemetery-tombs-gaza-180982634/

Al-Mughrabi, Nidal. 2023. “At Least 125 Tombs Discovered at Roman-Era Cemetery in Gaza.” Reuters, July 24, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/least-125-tombs-discovered-roman-era-cemetery-gaza-officials-2023-07-24/

Additional Resources:

Below are two additional resources that are related to this post. One is an article by abcnews and the other is a YouTube video by Al Jazeera.

https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/archaeologists-unearth-largest-cemetery-discovered-gaza-find-rare-103444671

Since their self-domestication, dogs have been invaluable to humans with their companionship and work ethic. Applying Canine Detection in Support of Collaborative Archaeology maintains that dogs can identify human burials. Canine detection is a non-invasive archaeological method similar to “geophysical remote sensing methods.” Canine detection is often used for pre-construction archaeological surveys.

Since 1998, The Institute For Canine Forensics (IFC) has trained Historic Human Remain Detection dogs (HHRD). Working breeds such as Labrador retrievers and herding dogs make successful HHRD canines. Training HHRD dogs takes multiple years and requires them to maintain regular training. A dog’s sense of smell enables them to identify cremation remains and human remains with or without bones. Canines are trained to alert their handler when they come across the scent of human remains. Often, canines alert their handlers by laying down, barking, or sitting.

IFC uses canine detection and collaborative archaeology to protect indigenous burial sites. Collaborative archaeology focuses on the historical record, community oral history, and ground penetrating radar (GPR). IFC works directly with indigenous descent communities to ensure possible burial sites are respected. There is a strong emphasis on rebuilding a relationship between indigenous communities and archaeologists, which was ruined in the 20th century. Archaeologists and IFC ensure there is awareness of indigenous trauma and history that impacts current interactions. IFC is committed to only surveying and publishing results with the permission of indigenous communities. 

HHRD canines working with IFC have successfully detected indigenous burial sites. Most of these projects have occurred in California and are supervised by indigenous peoples. While there may be some error in Canine detection, the dogs have helped keep indigenous burial sites safe from construction disturbances. 

Canine detection is a worldwide archaeological method. In Croatia, dogs alerted archaeologists to six burials at a 3,000-year-old site on Velebit Mountain. Sophie Valluv, an archaeologist, trained her dog Fabel to be an HHRD canine. Initially, Fabel was trained to assist Valluv in a master’s thesis on canine detection. Valluv and Fabel conducted 120 searches for human remains detection. Fabel could differentiate human remains from animal remains and discovered a 1,600-year-old burial. Another HHRD dog named Dax discovered animal bones in Montana that were 3,500 and 5,000 years old. Canine detection and HHRD canines are invaluable to the archaeological use of non-invasive methods of identifying human remains and burial sites.

Bibliography

Grebenkemper, John, Adela Morris, Brian F. Byrd, and Laurel Engbring. “Applying Canine Detection in Support of Collaborative Archaeology: Advances in Archaeological Practice.” Cambridge Core, July 9, 2021. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/advances-in-archaeological-practice/article/applying-canine-detection-in-support-of-collaborative-archaeology/11B525724D86698E8D34BBACA00B10A6. 

Neimark, Jill. “Can Archaeology Dogs Smell Ancient Time?” SAPIENS, August 17, 2022. https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/archaeology-dogs/. 

Image Credit

Image 1: Modern Dog Magazine

Image 2: DigItScotland

Archaeology can tell us about the Social and Political lives of people. One way this can be examined is by the relationship between humans and animals. Since the start of Democracy in the United States there have only been two presidents who chose not to have a pet, James K Polk and Donald Trump (Summers, 2023). While the most popular pet amongst US Presidents is a dog there have been pets ranging from laughing hyenas (Theodore Roosevelt) to mice from the Whitehouse (Andrew Johnson). While examining the pets in this way can be a human centered approach, the examination can give insight into the most intimate parts of presidents and their families as well as what was socially acceptable by society at the time, due to the public facing nature of being a president.

Socially, presidential pets can give a reading of the American people. One example of this can be seen with dogs. With 73% of all Presidents having a dog, they are the most popular pet amongst presidents (Summers 2023). That said, this can also tell us that Dogs are the most popular amongst the American people, the people who elect the president, with 44.5% of American families owning dogs (Megna 2023).

 Another example of presidential pets showing what is socially acceptable can be seen by President Teddy Roosevelt’s Hyena, Bill, a gift from King Menelik of Abyssinia from Ethiopia (Bryson Taylor 2020). This shows how over time societies understanding and care for animals has changed. In 1904, when Bill lived in the Whitehouse it was socially acceptable to have an animal that has no place being a city. However, as our society has grown and become less human centered it is now illegal to own a Hyena in the US (Basu 2023), a testament to our understanding of societies understanding of how our actions impact animals.

While these pets can be a pulse on society, they can also give unique windows into people’s lives. An example of this is the naming of animals, showing that they are cared for but also the names themselves can give insight into the people taking care of them. One of Theodore Roosevelt’s 14 pets (their horse Algonquin being one of them, seen in image 2) was his daughter, Alice’s garter snake named “Emily Spinach” (National Park Service 2020). First this seems like a juvenile name there is more meaning behind it with Alice saying that the name was picked, “because it was green as spinach and as thin as my Aunt Emily” immediately showing that Alice had some relationship with her aunt who was a thin individual. Oftentimes by naming things they become more humanized (Hymes 2022) so her pet snake became a more important animal tied into her observations of people she cared about. 

To conclude, the presidential pets give a unique ability to look into the lives of these incredibly prominent figures while also understanding how our society is functioning on a social level. 

Further Reading Links:

The White House Pets: https://www.whitehousehistory.org/white-house-pets

Weirdest Presidential Pets in History: https://www.businessinsider.com/weird-presidential-pets-include-alligator-tiger-cub-dog-named-satan-2019-12

References

Basu, Lex. “Are Hyenas Dogs (Canines) or Cats (Felines) or Something Else Entirely?” AZ Animals, October 3, 2023. https://a-z-animals.com/blog/are-hyenas-dogs-canines-or-cats-felines-or-something-else-entirely/?from=exit_intent.

Bryson Taylor, Derrick. “When the White House Was Full of Claws, Scales, Stripes and Tails.” New York Times, November 14, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/14/us/white-house-pets.html.

Cherner, Jessica. “10 Photos of Adorable Presidential Dogs and Their Owners-in-Chief.” New York Post, July 5, 2022. https://nypost.com/2022/07/04/meet-the-presidential-dogs-who-lived-in-the-white-house/.

Hymes, Kathryn. “Naming Objects Is the Opposite of Thoughtless Consumption.” The Atlantic, April 18, 2022. https://www.theatlantic.com/family/archive/2022/04/naming-objects-psychology/629561/.

Megna, Michelle. “Pet Ownership Statistics 2023.” Forbes, October 18, 2023. https://www.forbes.com/advisor/pet-insurance/pet-ownership-statistics/#:~:text=Popularity%20certainly%20has%20nothing%20to,29%25%20of%20households%20own%20cats.

“The Roosevelt Pets.” National Parks Service, November 22, 2020. https://www.nps.gov/thrb/learn/historyculture/the-roosevelt-pets.htm.

Summers, Robert S. “Types of Pets.” POTUS, 2023. https://potus.com/presidential-facts/types-of-pets/.

I was inspired by our class discussion last week about a species hierarchy. Most groups, including my own, placed humans above all other species. But this sparked the question; at what point in our evolution did we become a species deserving of this ranking? Is this top spot reserved solely for Homo Sapiens? Or the more general genus of Homo? Was Homo Erectus or Neanderthals advanced enough to occupy this top spot? What about the pre-humans that built the 476,000 year old wooden structure recently discovered? No other animals seem to be capable of such a feat. So, what is the line between human and animal, and when did our evolution surpass that line?

The earliest fossils from the genus Homo were discovered in east Africa and dated back 2.3 million years. We know that members of the genus homo used simple stone tools to butcher animal carcasses around 1.8 mya, which elevated their mainly plant diet (Pontzer, 2012). This seems like a definingly Homo trait, yet many animals use stones as tools, including chimpanzees, monkeys, otters, birds, and some fish (Bressan, 2019). However, it seems as if the genus Homo is the only one to have the capacity to modify these stones before use. Maybe the capacity to manufacture tools is what separated the genus Homo from every other. 

Homo Erectus evolved 1.9 million years ago, and persisted until only about 100 thousand years ago. By this time, they occupied Africa and Eurasia, meaning the species had adapted to living in a wide range of environments. The species’ brain size had drastically increased, containing the cognitive capacity to adapt and thrive in any climate (Pontzer, 2012). Perhaps this was the cognitive advancement that set us apart from the rest of the animal kingdom. We also know Homo Erectus and other hominins of the time used wooden tools, though not many survive. The oldest discovered wood artifact is a polished wood plank found in Israel, dating over 780 thousand years old. 

Then, about 700,000 years ago, Homo Erectus had evolved into Homo Heidelbergensis, who had much in common with modern humans, including bodily proportions, dental adaptations, and cognitive abilities. Homo Heidelbergenis used Levallois style tools and had mastered control of fire. Archaeologists have also found 400,000 year old wood tools used for foraging and hunting. It was likely this species that constructed the 480,000 year old wooden structure, likely a platform used for fishing (Sulivan, 2023). Neanderthals evolved from Homo Heidelbergensis by 250 thousand years ago, and about 50,000 years following, our own species, Homo Sapien, evolved from Homo Heidelbergensis in Africa. Eventually, Homo Sapiens had spread throughout Eurasia, the Americas, and Australia (Pontzer, 2o12).

The point at which the genus Homo claimed its lead in the species hierarchy depends on what Homo-specific advancement you consider to define that jump. Homo Erectus’ ability to thrive in any environment seems the most convincing to me, as this demonstrates a mastery of nature not seen in any other species. 

Further Reading:

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/2-mental-abilities-separate-humans-from-animals/

Works Cited:

Bressan, D. (2019, March 18). Archaeological evidence shows how animals are mastering the use of Stone Tools. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2019/03/16/the-animals-that-have-entered-the-stone-age/?sh=1337f9c5b4cd 

Pontzer, Herman. (2012) Overview of Hominin Evolution. Nature Education Knowledge https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/overview-of-hominin-evolution-89010983/

Sulivan, William. (2023, September 22). Archaeologists uncover notched logs that may be the oldest known wooden structure. Smithsonian.com. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/archaeologists-uncover-notched-logs-that-may-be-the-oldest-known-wooden-structure-180982942/#:~:text=Archaeologists%20have%20uncovered%20evidence%20of,date%20to%20476%2C000%20years%20ago. 

“A dog is a man’s best friend”… for now. This universal quote highlights the loyal bond that exists between humans and the common companion species: dogs. This relationship shares a rich history with many cuddles, walks, and serotonin. On the other side of this history dogs were used as source for labor. As history continues to develop, humans find themselves appealing to new species, ones that could challenge my initial quote.

Only seen on television we have witnessed domesticated reptiles, parrots, and monkeys. 

Many viewers considered these domesticated animals to be peculiar as we never considered nor viewed it possible to have these species as household “pets”. Well it is possible. Humans have begun to develop relationships with what we once considered wild and foreign animals altering the history of “companion species”. For example, foxes who thrive in various environments, have begun to enter the home of humans. Foxes once considered wild and dangerous are now being sold at a current asking price of $8,000 in Russia(Miller, 2023). Another potential new pet that may surprise readers is a skunk. This odorous creature actually makes great for a pet as skunks odor glands can actually be removed, extracting any potential for a stick bomb. Skunks are very curious creatures making them great for homeowners looking for a small buddy to bond with (Miller, 2023). Another recent pet phenomenon is the domestication of rats. This creature is relatively easy to care for as it does not require much attention and is rather independent. These examples provide evidence that as time continues household choices for a pet have strayed away from your typical dog to more foreign species like the ones we see on our television. 

The television can be dangerous. Human’s curious and naive minds sometimes can’t help but watch Tiger King, a show that has been viewed in 64 million households, and want a pet tiger (Reilly, 2020). This thought should go no further. 

As mentioned television has captivated humans’ minds on what species have the potential to be pets. Although we have seen the domestication of once-wild animals like foxes, skunks, and rats, not all animals have the potential to succeed in domestication. For example, Tigers have natural instincts, behaviors, and physical attributes that make them unsuitable for domestication. The large and immensely powerful animal poses various safety risks, social needs, and diet restrictions. Additionally, tigers are endangered in the wild so rather than focusing on domesticating the species concerns should be focused on the efforts to promote their natural population and habitats. Similar conversations can be had about the domestication of cheetahs and lions who require similar needs to tigers. Ultimately, when considering the domestication of animals into companion species, history has shown that new species can enter our homes. However, it is vital to acknowledge that not all species can be or should be domesticated, even if your television is showing something else. 

Citations-

Miller, Quincy. “12 Animals That Are Becoming Domesticated as Pets (With Pictures).” 12 Animals That Are Becoming Domesticated as Pets (With Pictures) | Pet Keen Skunks As Pets: Where They’re Legal + How To Care For One (Wideopenspaces.Com)\. September 7, 2023. https://doi.org/https://petkeen.com/animals-that-are-becoming-domesticated-as-pets/.

Reilly, Nick. “Huge Viewing Figures for Netflix’s ‘Tiger King’ Have Been Revealed.” NME, 23 Apr. 2020, www.nme.com/news/tv/huge-viewing-figures-for-netflixs-tiger-king-have-been-revealed-2651474. 

Furthur Reading-

https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/animals-who-have-been-domesticated.html

Domesticated animals, explained (nationalgeographic.com)

https://www.businessinsider.com/animals-legal-pets-us-surprising-2019-10