The game of lacrosse is another game along with Chunkey and Stickball, that Native Americans created and played, that still lives on prominently today. In its early Native American forms, lacrosse was played with a wide range of rules and strategies that differed in different areas, but across the board the game was played with wooden sticks, oftentimes with nets attached to them and with a ball made from deer hide. The Haudenosaunee were the original creators of the game, and played it with teams of between 100-1,00 men, on borderless fields. The original form of the game tended to be quite violent with broken arms and legs being a frequent circumstance, and games could last even span multiple days. Much like Chunkey and Stickball, lacrosse games were played to prepare tribes for war, as well as being seen as a social event where tribes would get together for trade and fun. Tribes would often play lacrosse in order to settle territorial disputes, while keeping intact diplomacy between tribes and avoiding warfare and the loss of human life. Often Native Americans would even gamble on lacrosse games, and “some would not hesitate to wager their wives, children, and themselves into servitude.” (Aveni).

Figure 1:  Image of large lacrosse game with many players on field without boundaries (Vennum Jr).

Within the lacrosse world, it is commonplace to refer to lacrosse as “the medicine game”, or “the creators game”. This comes from the belief of the Haudenosaunee people that the game was a gift from the creator and was to be played for the creator. It is said that the act of playing the game has a medicinal effect and is said to be able to heal the sick. This belief in the medicinal powers of the game of lacrosse carries on as the game has evolved and the present day Haudenosaunee continue to play the game that was given to them by the creator, with its medicinal nature always in mind.

It is Haudenosaunee tradition for children, when they are born to be given a lacrosse stick with a shaft made from shagbark hickory that is repeatedly dried and steamed until it is bent like a shepherd’s crook. Next, sticks are cut down to size, and the pocket is made from leather or rawhide. These sticks are supposed to stay with them their entire lives and when Haudenosaunee lacrosse players die, they are buried with their stick by their side. As the game of lacrosse has grown and spread beyond the Haudenosaunee nation, equipment and sticks have changed and in present day lacrosse, most players opt for a metal shaft and plastics head with a synthetic pocket, but many present day Haudenosaunee lacrosse players choose to continue the tradition of playing with the wooden stick in honor of the game and it’s history within their culture.

Figure 2: Team Iroquois Lacrosse Players with Traditional Sticks at 2014 World Games. (Maracle, 2023).

Reference List:

Kennedy, Lesley. November 19, 2021. “The Native American Origins of Lacrosse.” History.com. https://www.history.com/news/lacrosse-origins-native-americans. 

Aveni, Anthony. “The Indian Origins of Lacrosse.” The Colonial Williamsburg Official History & Citizenship Site. https://research.colonialwilliamsburg.org/Foundation/journal/winter10/lacrosse.cfm.

“Brief Origin Of Lacrosse.” Nabb Research Center Online Exhibits. https://libapps.salisbury.edu/nabb-online/exhibits/show/native-americans-then-and-now/native-americans-and-lacrosse/brief-origin-of-lacrosse

Maracle, Candace. July 1, 2023. “Master lacrosse stick maker Alfie Jacques passes on tradition before dying.” CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/alfie-jacques-onondaga-haudenosaunee-traditional-wooden-lacrosse-stick-1.6889893

Vennum Jr., Thomas. “The History Of Lacrosse.” Brooklyn Lacrosse Club. https://www.brooklynlacrosse.org/lacrosse-history 

Further Reading:

The Making of a Wooden Lacrosse Stick: https://eopsports.com/the-making-of-a-wooden-lacrosse-stick/

Timeline of the History of Lacrosse:  https://worldlacrosse.sport/the-game/origin-history/

The Etruscan civilization existed in Italy between the 8th and 3rd century. This civilization was significant not only for its influence on the development of ancient Roman art and culture but for the Italian Renaissance as well. The Etruscans were the first “superpower” of the Western Mediterranean and developed some of the earliest flourishing cities in Europe. Some of the most important cities in modern Tuscany (Florence, Pisa, and Siena) were originally established by the Etruscans and have been inhabited since then. The Etruscans dominated Italy until their demise in the Roman-Etruscan wars to the Roman Empire in the 4th century B.C.

On October 27th, in the municipality of Giugliano in Campania, Italy, a tomb from the Etruscan civilization was discovered, having been hidden for approximately 2,600 years.  Sealed and blocked by multiple slabs of stone, the interior of the tomb, a double chamber dug into the rock, was found by archaeologists to hold numerous artifacts, including a collection of pottery and amphorae, the jars likely having contained wine from the island of Chios, Greece. Utensils, cups, and numerous pieces of ceramic were also found inside the tomb, as was a tablecloth that may have been used for a funerary ritual offering called the “meal of the dead.” The amount of valuable items found within the tomb suggests that the person to whom it was made was either extraordinarily wealthy or of extreme importance, though their identity has yet to be uncovered.

What made this extraordinary find particularly important to archaeologists and historians was the amount of Greek influence present in this Italian tomb. One example of this is the Greek wine found in the tomb, highlighting the importance of the wine trade of the time. A more substantial example is the amount of Greek mythological figures that littered the interior of the tomb, such as the vast depiction of Cerberus, the giant three-headed dog noted for its serpent tail and snakes growing out of its back; it is said that the job of this being was to guard the gates of the underworld both from escaping spirits and the invading living. The scene depicts Hercules arriving at Hades to capture Cerberus, in addition to ichthyocentaurs, creatures that have human upper bodies, lower bodies of horses, and fish tails. 

Though it is at the moment unknown, archaeologists expect to be able to use further excavations of the site to find critical information about ancient Vulci, as much of the literary and historical texts from the civilization have been lost or destroyed. The language itself is only partially understood today. The architecture of the tomb, along with the discovered artifacts, provide valuable historical insights into life in Vulci as well as the lifestyle of its aristocracy at the civilization’s zenith. 

The entrance to the tomb when it was unearthed during archaeological surveys in southern Italy.

Works Cited

Killgrove, Kristina. “Mythical Hellhound and Sea-Centaurs Painted on 2,200-Year-Old Tomb Discovered in Italy.” LiveScience, Purch, 14 Oct. 2023, www.livescience.com/archaeology/roman/mythical-hellhound-and-sea-centaurs-painted-on-2200-year-old-tomb-discovered-in-italy.

Georgiou, Aristos. “Archaeologists Open Tomb Untouched for 2,600 Years.” Newsweek, Newsweek, 1 Nov. 2023, www.newsweek.com/archaeologists-open-tomb-untouched-2600-years-1839973.

Saraceni, Jessica Esther. “2,000-Year-Old Tomb Discovered in Southern Italy.” Archaeology Magazine, www.archaeology.org/news/11832-231013-italy-cerberus-tomb. Accessed 5 Nov. 2023.

Additional Sources

https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/etruscan-tomb-vulci-0019717

https://www.euronews.com/culture/2023/10/10/2000-year-old-tomb-of-cerberus-with-stunning-frescoes-discovered-in-italy

Cahokia was a city located east of St. Louis, Missouri, and made up of many large earthen mounds. This city was the largest pre-Columbus city north of Mexico and was a thriving community for around four centuries (Seppa,1997). There have been many speculations surrounding the possible religious aspects of Cahokians. It is difficult to determine the religious beliefs or practices of these people, as there was little time given to excavate and it has been demolished since then.

Many theories around Cahokian religion support the notion that constellations played an important role in Cahokian religion. The practice of Cahokian descendants “observing religion based on earth and sky Gods including the Morning and Evening stars”(Pauketat, 2009, 20) was documented by French and Spanish colonizers. It is also believed that the mounds of Cahokia were made concerning celestial events, specifically the patterns of the moon and sun. This theory can be seen in Emerald, whose mounds are also linked to constellations, specifically the moon and its patterns, Emerald appears to be a smaller version of Cahokia connected by a road (Ahmad, 2023). Emerald is thought to be more of a religious destination than the bustling community of Cahokia. The mounds of Emerald are thought to have been built for religious reasons. “Over the past four years, excavations at Emerald have uncovered two dozen half-buried structures with burned materials in their hearths and a striking yellow plaster on their floors. Alt believes these are “shrine houses” that people would visit as part of a personal spiritual practice”(Witze, 2016). These mounds are hypothesized to be in some ways an attempt to be closer to god or the spirits above. There have been many remnants of burnt structures that are thought to have religious meaning, this has been documented in both Cahokia and Emerald. Although it is believed that Emerald held most of the religious ceremonies there is evidence that some of Cahokia’s mounds were religion-based too. Sculptures of Goddesses and powerful animals have been found in Cahokia, emphasizing the religious practices of Cahokians. During the excavation of Mound 34 at Cahokia, the archeologists found lots of buried shark teeth, beads, and arrow points. During a later excavation, they realized there had been a building atop this mound that had been burnt down and these charred remnants were dropped on the terrace below likely with religious intention (Witze, 2016). “They argue that Cahokians may have conducted a series of rituals at the mound, perhaps enlarging it in an effort to bring earthly activities closer to the sky above”(Witze, 2016). Although it is difficult to pin down precisely what the Cahokians believed or what their religious values were it seems clear that religion played an important role in Cahokian’s lives.

Future Research:

https://www.templeton.org/grant/the-foundations-of-ancient-american-indian-religion-and-civilization-at-cahokias-emerald-shrine

https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/cahokia-mounds-state-historic-site-world-heritage-site.htm

References:

Ahmad, Fazal. “Places of Worship – Cahokia Mounds.” The Review of Religions, 29 Aug. 2023, www.reviewofreligions.org/42797/places-of-worship-cahokia-mounds/.

Anwar, Yasmin. “New Study Debunks Myth of Cahokia’s Native American Lost Civilization.” Berkeley, news.berkeley.edu/2020/01/27/new-study-debunks-myth-of-cahokias-native-american-lost-civilization. Accessed 5 Nov. 2023.

Bowdoin, Susan. “Religion and the Rise of Cahokia.” The Archaeological Conservancy, 12 Mar. 2016, www.archaeologicalconservancy.org/religion-and-the-rise-of-cahokia/.

Pauketat, Timothy. “Ancient American Goddesses on Display.” ILLINOIS, 2 Feb. 2018, news.illinois.edu/view/6367/607716.

Pauketat, Timothy R. Cahokia: Ancient America’s Great City on the Mississippi. Penguin Books, 2010.

Seppa, Nathan. “Metropolitan Life on the Mississippi.” The Washington Post, WP Company, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/march/12/cahokia.htm. Accessed 5 Nov. 2023.

Witze, Alexandra. “Religion and the Rise of Cahokia.” Issuu, from American Archaeology Magazine | Spring 2016 | Vol. 20 No. 1by American Archaeology Magazine, 27 July 2021, issuu.com/americanarchaeologymagazine/docs/aam-spr-2016/s/12948966#:~:text=Religion%20was%20not%20just%20a,one%20of%20Cahokia’s%20smaller%20mounds.

Death has become a central aspect of human culture since we began living in communities. Every society suffers from death and each has different traditions and rituals that correspond with their culture and beliefs. One prominent ancient civilizations, the Ancient Egyptians, had their own burial system which included elaborate coffins and a long list of instructions for how to act in the afterlife (Lidz, 2023). The Egyptian Book of the Dead (Figure 1), which had been in private possession since the 19th century, was finally exhibited in the Getty Museum of Los Angeles for the public to see (Lidz, 2023).

This collection of documents shows us how the wealthy Egyptians were prepared for the afterlife, and shows us their cultures, beliefs and traditions regarding the dead. The documents contained a series of prayers and instructions on how they should be said which is supposed to facilitate the transition to the afterlife as well as obtaining control over your destiny (Lidz, 2023). These spells would protect you from harm such as snakes or being decapitated, but the objective of the entire document is to achieve safe passage to their version of paradise, lush fields that can provide sustenance for the gods (Lidz, 2023). In Ancient Egyptian culture, the purpose of their life on Earth was to be as morally good as they could be, so they are able to move into the afterlife safely and serve the gods for the rest of eternity. This shows how religion is a core belief in this culture as they live on Earth with the hope to work and feed the gods for the rest of their existence. 

This newly publicized artifact reminded me of the discussion about the human remains found in the mounds of the Native American city of Cahokia, and the role that religion may have played in this society. There are a lot of similarities between “Birdman” (Figure 2) and the burials of the Ancient Egyptian elites, as they all possessed lots of valuable grave goods (Seppa, 1997) as well as an elaborate coffin and support for an easy transition to the afterlife (White, 2023).

The stark difference between these two rituals are the remains of the many humans that were sacrificed found in Cahokia next to “Birdman”. Some were found right next to the supposed ruler, which are suspected to be close relatives, as well as over 50 other bodies placed in a line, which are believed to be human sacrifices (White, 2023). We discussed the possible reasonings behind these sacrifices, but I believe we can assume that religion played an important role. Looking at the Egyptians lifestyle, their entire lives seemed built around religion as they were eternally devoted to serving their gods. Although a completely different culture, the homogenous burial practices lead one to believe that the people of Cahokia may have shared a similar lifestyle that completely surrounded itself with one central idea, religion, which influenced their culture and the many human sacrifices.

Additional Information

More information on the Egyptian Book of the Dead: https://arce.org/resource/book-dead-guidebook-afterlife/

More information on Egyptian Burial Practices: https://choicemutual.com/blog/ancient-egyptian-burial-practices/

References:

Lidz, Franz. “Now Showing, an Ancient Spell Book for the Dead.” The New York Times, October 31, 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/31/science/archaeology-egypt-book-dead.html.

Seppa, Nathan. “Metropolitan Life on the Mississippi.” The Washington Post, March 12, 1997. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/march/12/cahokia.htm.

White, AJ. “Cahokia.” Berkeley ORIAS. Accessed November 5, 2023. https://orias.berkeley.edu/resources-teachers/societies-americas/cahokia#:~:text=Although%20Mound%2072%20tells%20a,religion%20and%20power%20at%20Cahokia. 

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The Popham Colony, established in 1607, is known as one of the first English attempts at settling in North America. The location of this settlement was in southern Maine at the mouth of the Kennebec River next to what is now known as Fort St. George as shown in Figure 1. The Popham Colony was created in hopes that new colonists traveling to North America could engage in trade with Popham. Also, the residents of this colony were tasked with finding valuable resources that could potentially be sold in England for large profits.

The mystery of this colony is derived from its shortness of life. According to records, the Popham colony was constructed in the summer of 1607 and was abandoned in the fall of 1608 (Maine Department of Agriculture). A little over one-hundred settlers that helped build the colony dealt with illness, difficult weather, and very limited resources. A number of food shortages forced many of the colony’s members to sail back to England. Thus began the downfall of Popham. In February of 1608, the leader of the colony, George Popham, passed away due to unknown causes (Andrews, 2017). After George’s death, the morale in the colony plummeted and most of the colonists decided to sail back to Europe. One man in particular, Raleigh Gilbert, took over for George Popham but received word “that he had inherited a title and an estate” in England which persuaded him to abandon his post as leader of the colony (Beckenstein, 2004). Any others that stayed had eventually abandoned the area in search of a more resourceful community.

Given this short-lived venture by George Popham and his group of colonists, the site was lost to the elements for 280 years. In 1888, a researcher in Madrid discovered a map or plan of Fort St. George, as shown in Figure 2, drawn by a member of the colony, John Hunt (Beckenstein, 2004). The theory behind this discovery is that the map was copied by a Spanish spy when it was brought back to Europe for analysis by the crown of England. Following this discovery, archaeologist Jeffrey Brain used John Hunt’s plans to confirm the location of the colony in 1994. Between all of the excavations that lasted from 1994 to 2013, Brain has been able to uncover several structures within the fort such as the outline of the fort, the Admiral’s house, and the liquor storage building (Mark, 2021).

Since this most recent discovery, historians and archaeologists have recognized the Popham colony as one of the first European colonies in North America, and the start of extensive colonization in New England.

Additional Content:

Popham Colony: Planning, Attempt, and Legacy: https://youtu.be/YmmhYcaKvRs?si=SOT4c9xv5UlLtPcR

Popham Colony: A Slice of Time: https://www.mainestory.info/maine-stories/popham-colony.html

References:

Andrews, Evan. Jun. 1, 2023. “The Lost Colony of Popham.” The History Channel. https://www.history.com/news/the-lost-colony-of-popham#:~:text=One%20account%20from%20January%201608,in%20February%201608%2C%20when%20George

Beckenstein, Myron. Feb., 2004. “Maine’s Lost Colony.” Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/maines-lost-colony-106323660/

Maine Department of Agriculture, Conservation, and Forestry. 2021. “The Popham Colony of 1607.” Bureau of Parks and Lands. https://www.maine.gov/dacf/parks/discover_history_explore_nature/history/popham_colony/index.shtml

Mark, Joshua. Jan. 11, 2021. “Popham Colony.” World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Popham_Colony/

The Archaeology Channel. 2023. “ArchaeoVideo Field Communiquè: The Popham Colony, A Short Video Series.” https://www.archaeologychannel.org/video-guide-summary/119-archaeovideo-field-communique-the-popham-colony

Wikipedia. Jun. 22, 2023. “Popham Colony.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popham_Colony#:~:text=The%20exact%20site%20of%20the,Maine%27s%20Popham%20Beach%20State%20Park.

Many individuals are familiar with the game of chess or have had the opportunity to play it. The history of the ancient Indian strategy board game, once called Chaturanga, is not as commonly known. Originating in Northern India, the game spread across the world, differing in names. The name we know today is derived from the French term “eches,” which was later translated to “chess” in America. 

About 1500 years ago during the Gupta Empire, the game of Chaturanga came into existence. To simulate the Indian military strategy of that time, the people of Northern India used pieces to depict the four divisions of the military: the infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry. When discussing the premise of this game, people say, “This game has two of the most essential features inspired from the battle formations of the Indian epic of Mahabharata, that different pieces have different powers and victory depended on the survival of one piece- the king of the modern chess”(Kale, 2021). During the Middle Era, a king surrendering signified the loss of his kingdom, mirroring the way the game is lost when the king is captured.

The meaning of the pieces in the game of Chaturanga was bigger than just four figures. Each figure represented a valuable member of the kingdom, as shown in Figure 1. The point of using these pieces specifically was to show that everyone in the kingdom was important, despite their size or title. The king needs the queen, rooks, bishops, knights and pawns to survive in the game like he needs them to survive in life. 

The game of chess we know today has undergone transformations since the time of the Gupta Empire. The Chaturanga board began as a non-checkered blackboard differing from the chessboard we see today covered in black and white squares, as shown in Figure 2. The rules governing piece movement in chess differ from those in Chaturanga, with one notable distinction being the absence of checkmates and stalemates in Chaturanga.

Chess undoubtedly shares similarities with Chaturanga while also featuring distinct characteristics. What was once a strategic tool for simulating battle formations, has transformed into a casual game that can be played online. Mirroring military formations preserved the historical and strategic aspects of warfare in the religion. The rules and ways people play games like chess have been adapted to fit the norms of society to provide entertainment for the players, erasing the original intent of the game. By adapting the game for entertainment, it is being commercialized for profit, like competitive chess tournaments, only furthering the loss of the culture the game of Chaturanga once had. People today miss out on the opportunity to see how their ancestors were living during this time. 

The evolution of chess from its historical predecessor, Chaturanga, has brought both continuity and change in the game’s purpose and significance, from a strategic military simulation to a modern form of entertainment.

Further research links

Rules to Chaturanga

https://www.ludoteka.com/clasika/chaturanga-en.html

Origins of other popular board games

https://www.seamedu.com/blog/the-history-and-evolution-of-popular-board-games#:~:text=The%20history%20and%20evolution%20of%20board%20games%20is%20quite%20fascinating,started%20creating%20more%20evolved%20games.

Works Cited 

Colin Stapczynski, “Chess Board Dimensions,” Chess.com, October 4, 2021, https://www.chess.com/article/view/chess-board-dimensions 

Sharwari Kale, “From Chaturanga to Chess- The History of the Origin of Chess,” Homegrown, June 8, 2021, https://homegrown.co.in/from-chaturanga-to-chess-the-history-of-the-origin-of-chess 

Margo Gramiak

The relationship between sports history and archaeology is an interesting one, in that the two disciplines aid each other in different ways. Not only can archaeological practices better our understanding of ancient sports, but ancient sports can help us better understand ancient societies and their structures as a whole. 

Archaeological practices are important for sports historians in their understanding of the games and competitions they’re studying. Being able to actually see and touch artifacts that are relevant to their studies helps tremendously in their comprehension of the sport they’re working with. In most cases, archaeology reveals the existence of the ancient sport in the first place. Needless to say, this is crucial in sports history research. 

Handball, a game played in Ancient Egypt, serves as a great example of these concepts. Archaeological research allows us to understand the transformation of ancient handball, to the modern version that is still played today. Our knowledge of handball’s extensive history was prompted by the discovery of drawings in tombs of Saqqara, Egypt, that date back 5,000 years (Figure 1) (Morgan 2018). The drawings depict four girls throwing balls towards each other (Morgan 2018). These renderings allowed researchers to pinpoint the beginning of the sport. Additional discoveries of other drawings and artifacts further revealed information about the game, and how it’s been played throughout the years (Shereed 2020). The sport’s current day popularity also has helped to fill in gaps that archaeologists were unable to through just artifact analysis. A combination of archaeological research and knowledge passing has helped to reveal handball’s original rules. This is a great example of how archaeological research serves as an important tool in sports history.

Ancient sports are also important for archaeologists to better understand the societies they are studying. Oftentimes, the exploration of pastimes and activities is overlooked in the investigation of past societies. We focus on more basic aspects like where they lived, how they lived, what they ate, etc. Of course these are all important elements in any society, but why neglect the question of, “how did they have fun?” By exploring this question, so much can be revealed about a society and its dynamics. 

Again, take handball in Ancient Egypt for example. Archaeological data has revealed that sports in Ancient Egypt, including handball, were associated with social hierarchies (Shereed 2020). For example, evidence shows that Egyptian leaders and statesmen were the biggest fans of athletic contests, and even provided the equipment for games and events (Mark 2017). There is also evidence indicating that physical fitness and ability played a role in social status (Figure 2) (Houston Museum of Natural Science 2017). Sports were even played at celebrations like the king’s coronation, parties following military victories, religious ceremonies, and festivals (Mark 2017). Evidence of this use is prevalent in artwork (Mark 2017). Understanding the involvement of sports in Ancient Egyptian society reveals dynamics that otherwise would potentially be missed.

Even if they seem to be just “silly games,” it’s important not to neglect the significance of sports in a historical and archaeological context.  

Additional Resources: 

Information about ancient sports:

https://www.oldest.org/sports/sports/

Evolution and history of sports:

https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/evolution-sports-from-ancient-origins-modern-day-alimo-msc

Works Cited:

Shereef, El Doaa, “Ancient Egyptian Sports and Fundamental Principles of Olympics,” Academia.edu. 2020. https://www.academia.edu/44577685/Ancient_Egyptian_Sports_and_Fundamental_Principles_of_Olympics 

Morgan, Kori, “Sports Played in Ancient Egypt,” TheClassroom.com. 2018. https://www.theclassroom.com/sports-played-ancient-egypt-18187.html 

Mark, Joshua, “Games, Sports & Recreation in Ancient Egypt,” WorldHistory,org. April 11, 2017. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1036/games-sports–recreation-in-ancient-egypt/ 

Greiner, Thomas, “How Kids Had Fun in Ancient Egypt,” NileScribes.org. March 10, 2022. https://nilescribes.org/2022/03/10/how-kids-had-fun-in-ancient-egypt/ 

Houston Museum of Natural Science, “Pharaonic Fitness Test,” Hmns.org. May 19, 2017. https://blog.hmns.org/2017/05/pharaonic-fitness-test/ 

The ancient city of Cahokia, located in the southwest of Illinois, was once a bustling metropolis that thrived for four centuries. It was the largest pre-Columbian city in North America, and its agricultural practices and the diet of its inhabitants are crucial to understanding the daily lives and cultural dynamics of its citizens. Its large population ensured that agriculture would play a central role in structuring Cahokian society. Archaeological evidence and research provide insights into how the people of Cahokia sustained themselves throughout the city’s impressive history.

Agricultural practices were fundamental to Cahokia’s success. The city’s inhabitants cultivated a diverse array of crops, but maize (corn) was a primary staple of the average diet (Yates, 2020). The Cahokian’s production of maize was crucial, as its large-scale cultivation allowed Cahokia to support a large population. The people of Cahokia also developed agricultural techniques, such as the three sisters farming method (Person, 2023). This method involves planting maize, beans, and squash together, creating a symbiotic relationship, and ensuring the success of all three crops (Figure 1). Maize provided a tall stalk for the beans to climb, while squash vines covered the ground, reducing weed growth and retaining moisture (Editor, 2019) (Figure 1, Figure 2). This agricultural approach allowed Cahokians to maximize their agricultural productivity, thus helping the city support its growing population. 

Cahokia was situated on a floodplain of the Mississippi River – a very fertile section of land that provides an ideal environment for agriculture (Kiger, 2019). The rich soil supported not only the crops mentioned in the three-sisters farming method but also a variety of seeds, such as goosefoot, amaranth, a relative of quinoa, gourds, and marsh elder (Seppa, 1997). The specific types of crops cultivated by Cahokians, however, have been lost; but their descendants still exist in the area today (Gattuso, 2019). The surrounding woodland environment also provided an abundance of flora and fauna resources; Cahokia’s location contributed greatly to its abundance of food resources (Kiger, 2019). 

Archaeological evidence has revealed the presence of specialized storage pits within the city, suggesting that Cahokians stored surplus crops for future use (Collins, 1990). These storage facilities were essential for food security, especially during times of crop failure or food scarcity. The careful management of such food resources allowed Cahokians to mitigate the risks associated with agricultural production and large populations. Archaeologists have also discovered evidence of a large trade network connecting Cahokia to other regions and societies (Seppa, 1997). This network enabled the exchange of resources, including food, contributing to the city’s economic prosperity, and fostering a diverse cultural exchange. 

Cahokian society was intricately linked to the Cahokian diet. The abundance of food resources, as well as the development of an efficient agricultural system, allowed for the growth of a complex urban center. The surplus food production supported a hierarchical society, with leaders and elites who controlled the distribution of resources. Therefore, food played a role in not only nourishing and sustaining the Cahokian population but also in shaping social structure and hierarchy. 

Additional Information:

https://www.wild-fed.com/podcast/132

https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/02/10/513963490/1-000-years-ago-corn-made-this-society-big-then-a-changing-climate-destroyed-the

References:

Collins, James M. 1990. The Archaeology of the Cahokia Mounds ICT-II. https://libsysdigi.library.illinois.edu/oca/Books2008-07/archaeologyofcah00coll/archaeologyofcah00coll.pdf.

Editor. 2019. “Cahokia.” Open Ended Social Studies. July 3, 2019. https://openendedsocialstudies.org/tag/cahokia/.

Four String Farm. 2013. “The Three Sisters.” Four String Farm. Four String Farm. April 11, 2013. https://fourstringfarm.com/2010/07/09/tres-hermanas/.

Gattuso, Reina. 2019. “How Did Cahokian Farmers Feed North America’s Largest Indigenous City?” Atlas Obscura. March 28, 2019. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/native-american-farming-cahokia.

Kiger, Patrick J. 2019. “Ancient Native Americans Once Thrived in Bustling Urban Centers.” HISTORY. November 25, 2019. https://www.history.com/news/native-american-cahokia-chaco-canyon.

Person, Janice. 2023. “Uncovering Cahokia’s Food History & Forgotten Farmscapes.” Grounded by the Farm. August 30, 2023. https://groundedbythefarm.com/cahokia-food-history/.

Seppa, Nathan. 1997. “WashingtonPost.com: Ancient Cahokia.” Www.washingtonpost.com. March 12, 1997. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/march/12/cahokia.htm#:~:text=Along%20with%20corn%2C%20Cahokians%20cultivated.

Yates, Diana. 2020. “Cahokia’s Rise Parallels Onset of Corn Agriculture.” News.illinois.edu. May 14, 2020. https://news.illinois.edu/view/6367/808689.

Chunkey is a native American game that is played by throwing a spear as close to a rolling stone as possible. One player would roll the stone out and then one or multiple players would throw their respective spears while the stone was still rolling. The closest spear gets the point. This is the basis of the game but it was played in many different varieties depending on where you were from. It is even believed that some tribes from Mexico had a version of the game(Reporter 2020).

Already you can see that this was much more than just a game some Cahokians played. You can see by the spread of the game that there was value in sharing the game and spreading it making it more than just a use of time. Many Cahokian emissaries would carry a Chunkey ball in one hand and a war club in the other. This would signify either a peaceful option or a violent one(Pauketat 2009). Chunkey therefore became a diplomatic tool to offer peaceful solutions to diplomacy. This also reinforces the idea that it was spread so much because these emissaries would have brought it along for the purpose of engaging in peaceful diplomacy.

Although Chunkey did play such a large role in diplomacy for Cahokia it also played a vital role in local day-to-day life. Many players would bet their houses or life savings on the game. Not only was monetary value on the line but also pride. There are accounts of people committing suicide after losing(Reporter 2020). Furthermore, Chunkey was used to settle local disputes. It became a way to settle issues between people without the need for bloodshed. As long as both parties followed the game’s results, Chunkey was used to resolve hunting rights, territorial disputes, or any disagreement between two people(Lepine 2023).

The value and power Chunkey carried in Cahokia and all of North America at the time tells us how it was more than what we think of as a game today. It was a political tool that the Cahokians used to engage in diplomacy with other tribes. Chunkey was also a tool that everyday people used to settle disputes and issues they had. Most people at the time in North America used, or at the very least recognized, Chunky as having the ability to be a decider during disputes. People trusted each other to uphold the results of the game and saw Chunkey not just as a game. It was seen as a symbol of peaceful negotiation on a personable level and on a larger scale.

References:

DeBoer, Warren R. “LIKE A ROLLING STONE: THE CHUNKEY GAME AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION IN EASTERN NORTH AMERICA.” Southeastern Archaeology 12, no. 2 (1993): 83–92. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40712999.

Lepine, Nicolas. 2023. “Montessori Physical Education Blog Chunkey – Traditional Native American Sport.” Montessori Physical Education. April 23, 2023. https://www.montessoriphysicaleducation.com/new-blog/chunkey-traditional-native-american-sport2023/4/7.

Pauketat, Timothy. 2009. “America’s First Pastime – Archaeology Magazine Archive.” Archive.archaeology.org. September 2009. https://archive.archaeology.org/0909/abstracts/pastime.html.

Reporter, LINDSEY BARK. 2020. “Chunkey: A Game of Stones.” Cherokeephoenix.org. August 27, 2020. https://www.cherokeephoenix.org/culture/chunkey-a-game-of-stones/article_cdca67ea-6e61-5457-9309-500d1c95183f.html.

Additional information

PBS website https://www.pbs.org/native-america/chunkey

Interesting Blog https://livesandlegaciesblog.org/2019/10/17/when-games-are-serious-business-chunkey/

One of the greatest modern archeological mysteries is why Cahokia was seemingly rapidly abandoned for inexplicable reasons. Everything from astrological signs to aliens and time travel, have been offered as possible answers. In this, we see our inability to be content with the unknown. However, this hunt for an explanation has been stunted once again, as one of the most plausible and formerly accepted theories, the “wood overuse” hypothesis, has recently received several massive blows to its validity (Ogilore 2021). 

The “wood overuse hypothesis” explains that due to the rapid development of Cahokia and population growth large-scale consumption of surrounding forestry would leave Cahokia vulnerable to erosion. This would cause “increasingly frequent and unpredictable floods of the local creek drainages in the floodplain where Cahokia Mounds was constructed” (Sherwood 2021). This matches our modern Western understanding of how overconsumption is bad and has led to an increase in natural disasters. Large-scale flooding would be a very forcing event that might spur the abandonment of Cahokia.

However, recent archeological studies have all but debunked this hypothesis. While it is true that, “with a growing population and more mouths to feed, overconsumption of all resources is a real risk”(Ogilore 2021), there is simply no real evidence that has been discovered that would prove the existence of dangerous levels of flooding. Recent excavations around a Mississippian Period (AD 1050–1400) Cahokia mound in a flood plain revealed the ground that the mound was built on was stable until industrial development (Ogilore 2021). This evidence debunks the idea that flooding was the cause of Cahokia’s collapse.

Still, ecocide, which is defined as when a society fails due to self-inflicted ecologic disaster, is one of the leading hypotheses about the cause of the fall of Cahokia. Archeologists have proven that Cahokians must have extracted around 10,000 trees in order to fuel many of their developments, so pointing at ecocide is not completely baseless, but in archeology, it has come to be somewhat of a cheap answer. Ecocide narratives are often accepted in archeological conversations, even in the face of a lack of direct evidence that the hypothesized environmental consequences are true (Sherwood 2021). We through our modern lens can not understand why they left, but we feel like we need to be able to explain. Thus ecocide has become a tempting all-encompassing tool to throw out without proper backing in order to find a missing explanation. As previously revealed, this safety net was also cast over Cahokia, despite lacking evidence.

References

Ogliore, Talia. “Study: Scant Evidence That ‘wood Overuse’ at Cahokia Caused Local Flooding, Subsequent Collapse – the Source – Washington University in St. Louis.” The Source, 27 Jan. 2022, source.wustl.edu/2021/04/study-scant-evidence-that-wood-overuse-at-cahokia-caused-local-flooding-subsequent-collapse/.

Sherwood, Sarah. Evaluating Narratives of Ecocide with the … – Wiley Online Library, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21848. Accessed 5 Nov. 2023.

Additional Links

https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/24/science/cahokia-mounds-floods.html

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/why-was-ancient-city-of-cahokia-abandoned-new-clues-rule-out-one-theory

https://atmos.earth/ancient-ties-indigenous-people-and-the-extraterrestrial/