Humans have been consuming fish for a long time. Two major discoveries in East Asia give insight into some of the earliest technological advancements in fishing.

Figure 1: Partial fishing hook used by early humans in East Timor (Choi 2014). Photograph by Susan O’Conner

One site in present-day East Timor, a small island north of Australia, gives us insight on early fishing techniques. The discovery of fishing hooks made of bone and shell (Figure 1) can be dated back to 42,000 years ago (Choi 2014). These hooks are the oldest ever found (Choi 2014). What is so impressive about these fishing hooks is that they were used to catch tuna, a fish that lives in deep water, moves quickly, and is even difficult to catch today. Early humans developed new techniques in order to catch these fish. The site is at the Jerimalai Shelter (Figure 2) found on the north side of the island (Corbyn 2011). Archaeologist Susan O’Connor spearheaded the dig and found around 38,000 fish bones including fish such as tuna and parrotfish (Zukerman 2011). East Timor is a small island with not many large animals living on it today, so humans living at the site 42,000 years ago most likely relied on fish as their main source of food (Choi 2014). Therefore, humans were forced to adapt and create new technologies, such as deep-sea fishing hooks, to allow them to capture fish in the area. These fishing techniques also give us a further understanding on how humans were able to travel across the ocean for extended periods of time, subsisting on fish during the journey, to get to Australia and other islands (Corbyn 2011). 

Figure 2: The Jerilamai Shelter in East Timor where ancient fish bones and fishing hooks were found. Photograph by Susan O’Conner

Another discovery that furthers our understanding of the development of fishing comes from a site in Northeastern South Korea, where the oldest fishing net sinkers (Figure 3) were found (DeCou 2018). In the Maedun Cave site, archaeologists discovered 14 stones made of limestone with “central grooves” (DeCou 2018). The nets would sink to the seafloor because of this extra weight and would catch fish more efficiently. Thanks to radiocarbon dating, we know these stones to be about 29,000 years old and are “considered to be the world’s earliest” of their kind (Yonhap 2018). Before this find, the oldest stone sinkers were roughly 10,000 years old (DeCou). Humans were using stones to sink nets thousands of years before what we previously thought.

Figure 3: Limestone net sinkers with grooves were found in South Korea (DeCou). Photograph courtesy of Han et al.

With the discovery of these old fish hooks and net sinkers, we now know that technologies in fishing occurred much earlier than previously thought. The findings also increase our understanding of the diet of humans and the types of fish people were eating in East Timor 42,000 years ago and in South Korea 29,000 years ago.

Additional Reading

On the importance of present-day fishing in East Timor

http://blog.worldfishcenter.org/2017/06/improved-fisheries-in-timor-leste-a-path-to-greater-well-being/

More information on some of the earliest seafaring humans

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/2/100217-crete-primitive-humans-mariners-seafarers-mediterranean-sea/

References

Choi, Charles Q. 

2014 World’s Oldest Fish Hooks Show Early Humans Fished Deep Sea. Electronic Document, https://www.livescience.com/17186-oldest-fish-hooks-early-humans.html, accessed September 27, 2019.

Corbyn, Zoe

2011 Archaeologists land world’s oldest fish hook. Electronic Document, 

https://www.nature.com/news/archaeologists-land-world-s-oldest-fish-hook-1.9461, accessed September 27, 2019.

DeCou, Christopher

2018 Possible Evidence of World’s Oldest Fishing Nets Unearthed in Korea. Electronic Document, https://www.hakaimagazine.com/news/possible-evidence-of-worlds-oldest-fishing-nets-unearthed-in-korea/, accessed September 27, 2019.

Yonhap 

2018 29,000-year-old net sinkers, world’s oldest, found in Korean cave. Electronic Document, http://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20180807000306, accessed September 27, 2019.

Zukerman, Wendy

2011 Deep sea fishing for tuna began 42,000 years ago. Electronic Document,

https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21213-deep-sea-fishing-for-tuna-began-42000-years-ago/, accessed September 27, 2019.

Images

Figure 1.  https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn21213-deep-sea-fishing-for-tuna-began-42000-years-ago/

Figure 2. https://www.livescience.com/17186-oldest-fish-hooks-early-humans.html

Figure 3. https://www.hakaimagazine.com/news/possible-evidence-of-worlds-oldest-fishing-nets-unearthed-in-korea/

Basket weaving is one of the oldest crafts in Native American history. For the Wabanaki, basket weaving goes as far back as the very story of their creation. Historically, basket weaving served a heavily utilitarian role for Native Americans, but in recent centuries, trade has changed the cultural of baskets as well as their designs. (Neptune and Neuman, 2015)

In Northern California for example, the structure and design of a basket often denoted its function in society. Some examples of different woven baskets include seed beaters, storage baskets, cooking baskets, and hats. Seed beaters, used to knock the seeds off grasses and other plants, as well as cooking baskets generally lacked ornate patterns and designs due to their utilitarian usage. Hats and other more formal basketry on the other hand were more ceremonial and would have more ornate designs and patterns.

For Native Americans in Northern California, large baskets like this were used for cooking. Photo from https://www.antiqueamericanindianart.com/nocal-basketry-forms.html

In the 18^th century, woven baskets started gaining popularity as a trade item. As hunting and gathering rights began to get encroached, weavers started to make baskets for the purpose of making money to buy food instead of their original uses as tools. Towards the end of the 18^th century, the basket weaving industry began to flourish leading to intricate new basket designs, structures, and forms. The designs of baskets began a transition from the utilitarian and ceremonial wares they were to the part of popular Native American culture they are now. (Shelton, 2019)

Along with the emergence of the basket weaving industry, new technologies also lead to changes in how the baskets were made changing their designs further. In the 1860s for example, aniline dyes became involved the basket weaving process for some Native American groups in Maine due to its ability to save time and labor. The introduction of these dyes allowed for more vibrant colors and lead to a more diverse color palette. Later in the 1880s, new manufacturing technologies such as wood splitters, gauges, and blocks lead to more changes in woven baskets and their designs. Blocks helped hold the basket’s shape allowing basket makers to create smaller, fancier, and more decorative baskets. In the 19^th century, baskets began to be embellished with fancy handles, sweetgrass, decorative weaves, and dyed splints due to Victorian influence. (Neptune and Neuman, 2015)

Today, the basket trade is still going strong with various websites dedicated to selling these baskets. However, in Northeastern U. S. the basket trade is threatened by emerald ash borers which cause the destruction of the ash trees used to make the baskets. To learn more about the modern basket trade and basket collecting visit http://indianterritory.com/native_american_indian_baskets.htm. To learn more about a local basket maker in New York and the struggles she now faces visit http://www.bradfordera.com/news/local/seneca-artist-reflects-on-cultural-history-of-basket-making/article_521dd993-0dd4-5ca9-86d0-4cd0a5e0f165.html

This is a Hopi sifter basket. Historically used for sifting acorn flour. The basket displayed in this picture is being sold online. Picture from seller, https://www.kachinahouse.com/vintage-native-american-hopi-made-sifter-basket.

References –

Antique American Indian Art
2018 Northern California Basketry Forms. Electronic document, https://www.antiqueamericanindianart.com/nocal-basketry-forms.html, accessed 9/22, 2019.

Editorial Staff
2013 Exhibit Highlights Native American Basket Design. Electronic document, https://newyorkhistoryblog.org/2013/08/basket-exhibit-highlights-centuries-of-native-american-design/, accessed 9/23, 2019.

Jennifer S. Neptunea * and Lisa K. Neumanb * a Maine Indian Basketmakers Alliance, Indian Island, ME, USA b The University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
2015 Basketry of Wabanaki Indians. Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures:1-10.

Shelton, Heather
2019 Clarke Museum exhibit delves into Native American basket design. Times Standard 9/1:Lifestyle. https://www.times-standard.com/2019/09/01/yesterday-and-today/.

By focusing on one type of Greek archaeology — the Kouros statues and similar — and examining the evolution within the type, a basic chronology presents itself. Archaeologists study artifacts, such as Greek sculpture, for similar attributes that allow them to group the artifacts into types. Both among types and within one type there may be an evolution of attributes that archaeologists can use to place artifacts into a relative chronology (Renfrew and Bahn 2018:111). This understanding of which attributes unite a type and which have evolved over time provide insight into where a type fits within a larger timeline.

Figure 2. An example of a Kouros sculpture, Kroisos. Photograph by It’s Artalicious.

Figure 1. An example of Kouros sculpture, the New York Kouros. Photograph from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

The New York Kouros (Figure 1) and Kroisos (Figure 2) are two examples within the the Kouros type. Both share a frontal orientation and similar stance of one foot in front of the other with evenly distributed weight. They are nude male youth, larger than life and highly stylized. Their hair is in unnaturally linear braids and their muscle is largely denoted by lines and partitioning of the body. However, the Kroisos’s hair falls with the curve of its neck and shoulders, and its abdominal muscles and knee caps are semi-realistically modeled. By contrast the New York Kouros’s hair comes down in a straight sheath and its muscle exists primarily as faint lines across the chest and winged bulges above the knees. Kroisos’s progression towards naturalization indicates that it was created after the New York Kouros.

Figure 3. A similar sculptural example, Polykleitos’s Doryphoros. Photograph by Ilya Shurygin.

A third sculptural example, Polykleitos’s Doryphoros (Figure 3), differentiates itself from the Kouroi most notably though contrapposto, “bearing the weight on one straight leg, while the other is bent” (Museum of Art and Archaeology [MAA] 2019:1) which is “counterbalanced by the arms, one of which is flexed while the other hangs relaxed by the side” (MAA 2019:1). This more realistic posture causes the Doryphoros to begin to blend into a new type, but it still shares many attributes with the Kouroi. It remains a young nude male with a partitioned body structure evident most clearly in the distinct curve at the hips and in the overly stylized abdominal muscles.  

Studying these ancient artifacts through an archaeological lens allows them to be categorized together and placed into a larger historical context. Because of the distinctive features that define the Kouroi, the Doryphoros, and other similar sculpture, it is evident that they belong to a specific period of Greek history. Initially artist “were presenting images to be read, not compared with life” (Rumy 2000:53) as inspired by the purposefulness of Egyptian sculpture (Rumy 2000:53). Later works within the type, such as the Doryphoros, are increasingly interested in an accurate representation of the human body making them bleed into a new period (MAA 2019:1). This evolution from Egyptian-inspired sculpture to more natural attributes indicates that the type follows the Greek Orientalizing Period and precedes the Classical Greek Period, placing the sculptural type in the Greek Archaic Period from 650 to 480 BCE (Rumy 2000:52).

References

Hilloowala, Rumy
2000 Anatomy and the art of Archaic Greece. The Anatomical Record 261(2):50-56.

Museum of Art and Archaeology University of Missouri                                                      2019 Doryphoros. Electronic document, https://maa.missouri.edu/gallery/doryphoros, accessed September 22, 209

Renfrew, Colin, and Paul G. Bahn
2018 Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, Practice with 303 Illustrations. Fourth ed. Thames & Hudson Ltd, London.

Images

Figure 1

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/253370

Figure 2

https://itsartalicious.wordpress.com/2015/05/12/the-kroisos-kouros-archaic-period-6th-century-bc/

Figure 3

http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=6967

Additional Reading

Kouros

A discussion of the differences between Kouros statues and Egyptian sculpture and the tools that made realism possible

https://ancient-greece.org/art/kouros.html

The Study of Ancient Sculpture

A discussion of other ways to analyze and gain meaning from Greek sculpture

https://repository.brynmawr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1099&context=arch_pubs

In ancient Rome, water was worshipped like a deity. Its abundance not only meant the wellbeing of Rome’s citizens but was also a sign of wealth and power for its burgeoning civilization. The site of Rome is naturally well-supplied with sources of water, notably nearby springs, and easily-accessible groundwater. However, as Rome’s population grew, the demand for water rose with it. To meet this increasing demand, aqueducts and other feats of engineering were constructed.

Aqueducts carried water from springs, reservoirs, and rivers into Rome’s metropolitan area. The introduction of aqueducts to the Roman water system, starting with Aqua Appia in 312 B.C.E., allowed water from further outside the city to be utilized and thus increased the amount of water at the Romans’ disposal. When we think of aqueducts, we often recall the architecturally-striking bridges, abundant with arches. Though many of these are easily observable and well preserved, they make up only a small fraction of most aqueducts. Aqua Appia, for instance, had only 300 feet of its 11-mile length above ground. The water was primarily sent through terracotta pipes underground, which have also been unearthed by archaeologists. The pipes used were likely made of terracotta because the Romans didn’t have cast-iron technology, bronze was too expensive, and lead pipes were rarely made at such great diameters. 

Figure 1 – Aqua Appia aqueduct bridge

Aqueducts were built at a slight decreasing angle, such that the pressure would not be too great yet water would still flow in the desired direction due to gravity. When the path of the aqueduct was impeded by a valley or gorge, an aqueduct bridge was usually built, featuring the now-iconic archways that served to limit building material while preserving structural integrity. Though some aqueducts maintained their steady decline, others had features such as siphons, which carried water down a ditch and then back up it. 

Cisterns were utilized by the Romans to collect rainwater as well as to collect water from aqueducts. When the water from an aqueduct reached the city, it would be stored in a cistern or distributing reservoir called a castellum. Smaller lead pipes would carry water from the castellum to either public works like fountains and bathhouses or private residences. These pipes had inscriptions embossed on their exterior indicating the manufacturer of the pipe, its subscriber, and how much water they were entitled to. By analyzing these inscriptions, we understand that private access to the water supply had to be purchased and was regulated by authorities. Citizens could buy a license to connect their property to an aqueduct, with the cost depending on the width of the pipe. This seemingly modern system also lead to some unlawful activity, however. Illegal tapping of aqueducts, widening pipes, and bribing aqueduct officials were relatively commonplace. 

Figure 2 – Roman lead pipe with inscriptions

Though the Romans did not invent the aqueduct, its development was not only revolutionary from a technological standpoint. They pioneered the idea that water could be the property of a government and had to be paid for.

References

Rodà, Isabel

“Aqueducts: Quenching Rome’s Thirst.” National Geographic, November 15, 2016.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2016/11-12/roman-aqueducts-engineering-innovation

Johnston, Harold Whetstone.

“Johnston’s Private Life of the Romans, Ch. 16.” Forum Romanum. Scott, Foresman and Company, 1903.

https://www.forumromanum.org/life/johnston_16.html

Mays, L.

Ancient Water Technologies. Springer, 2014.

https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-90-481-8632-7.pdf

Images

Figure 1

http://www.ancientpages.com/2019/04/10/aqueducts-are-among-most-exceptional-achievements-of-ancient-roman-engineers/aguaapia11

Figure 2

https://www.romae-vitam.com/ancient-roman-aqueducts.html

Additional Reading

How is LA like ancient Rome?

https://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/green-science/la-ancient-rome1.htm

The Rise and Fall of Roman Aqueducts:

https://interestingengineering.com/the-rise-and-fall-of-roman-aqueducts

Contrary to the pervading myth that Japan is a homogeneous society, Hokkaido, Japan’s northernmost island, is home to the indigenous Ainu people. While there is some controversy over their ancestry, they are thought to be closely related descendants of the Jomon people, who arrived in the Japanese archipelago via land bridge during the Jomon Period (about 14500-300 BCE). The Jomon people’s mixing with the Yayoi (likely migrants from continental East Asia) created the Yamato (or Wajin), which makes up the majority of modern Japan’s population.

Figure 1. An Ainu woman with a traditional mouth tattoo.

The Yamato drove the Ainu farther and farther North to Hokkaido, taking control of the area during the Tokugawa Shogunate (the Edo Period, 1803-1867 CE). In 1899, the Meiji Period imperial government began enforcing assimilation through the so-called Hokkaido Former Aborigines Protection Act, nearly driving the Ainu to extinction, until Japan lost World War II. As a result, many Ainu people had to hide their heritage for fear of discrimination and were stripped of much of their culture. Today, the Ainu language is on UNESCO’s endangered language list, and a 2013 survey shows about 16,786 self-identifying Ainu remaining in Hokkaido (though the actual number is estimated to be higher).

It was not until 1997 that the Japanese Diet replaced the Meiji government’s policy with the Ainu Culture Promotion and Dissemination of Information Concerning Ainu Traditions Act, which promoted cultural practices such as carving and dancing. In 2008, the government finally formally recognized the Ainu as a Japanese indigenous people.

As the stigma around the Ainu slowly began to wane and interest in their culture grow, more Japanese academics at Hokkaido University began to study them. Following its creation of the Center for Ainu and Indigenous Studies in 2007, the university conducted an excavation at Rebun Island, led by Indigenous Studies Professor Hirofumi Kato, off the northern coast of Hokkaido. There, archaeologists have been able to recover evidence of about 4,000 years of daily Ainu life. Thanks to sand calcium-rich from shell fragments, organic materials have been well-preserved, allowing archaeologists to study the ancient Ainu diet. Other such research has led to Takuro Segawa’s theory that the Ainu were involved in significant trade with the Japanese mainland and Northeast Asia, discrediting the image of the Ainu as an isolated people.

Figure 2. The Hamanaka 2 excavation site at Rebun Island.

Still, archaeological research on the Ainu needs reform, says Kato, as “Ainu studies have been undertaken ignoring the native point of view, and most studies have depended on descriptions of Ainu culture by non-native scholars” (Kato 2017). Moving forward, he emphasizes the need for more collaboration with local Ainu in research, as well as thorough consideration of their perspectives, especially in cases involving ancestral Ainu remains. “It is fully understood today that archaeology is a powerful tool for the creation of cultural identities in the past”, Kato writes, and “it should also be understood that archaeologists cannot operate in the absence of partnerships with host communities” (Kato 2017).

Images:

www.kangalifestyle.com/home/2018/4/9/ainu-women-of-japan

www.global.hokudai.ac.jp/blog/archaeology-of-indigenous-people-reading-stories-buried-in-the-earth/

References:

Hoang, Tony. “Jomon Period.” Ancient History Encyclopedia, Ancient History Encyclopedia Limited, 2 March 2016, https://www.ancient.eu/Jomon_Period/.

Joseph Caspermeyer, “New Genetic Evidence Resolves Origins of Modern Japanese”, Molecular Biology and Evolution, Volume 32, Issue 7, July 2015, Page 1913, https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msv074

Ōnishi, Hideyuki. “The Formation of the Ainu Cultural Landscape: Landscape Shift in a Hunter-Gatherer Society in the Northern Part of the Japanese Archipelago.” Journal of World Prehistory, vol. 27, no. 3/4, 2014, pp. 277–293., www.jstor.org/stable/24766187.

Nishimura, Yo. “Archaeologist awarded for Ainu trade theory.” The Japan Times, The Japan Times Limited, 1 March 2016, https:/A/www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/03/01/national/history/archaeologist-awarded-ainu-trade-theory/.

“Further research, museum, park, augur well for increased understanding of Ainu people, culture.” Hokkaido University, Hokkaido University, 26 December 2016, https://www.global.hokudai.ac.jp/blog/further-research-museum-park-augur-well-for-increased-understanding-of-ainu-people-culture/.

“Law, the ainu, and changing perceptions.” Hokkaido University, Hokkaido University, 20 December 2016, https://www.global.hokudai.ac.jp/blog/law-the-ainu-and-changing-perceptions/.

“Tokugawa Period.” Encylopædia Briticanna, Encylopædia Briticanna Incorporated, 31 July 2019, https://www.britannica.com/event/Tokugawa-period.

Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. “The Ainu: Beyond the Politics of Cultural Coexistence.” Cultural Survival, Cultural Survival, December 1999, https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/ainu-beyond-politics-cultural-coexistence.

“Archaeology of indigenous people: Reading stories buried in the Earth.” Hokkaido University, Hokkaido University, 15 April 2019, https://www.global.hokudai.ac.jp/blog/archaeology-of-indigenous-people-reading-stories-buried-in-the-earth/.

“Hokkaido U. an important hub for research into indigenous peoples.” Hokkaido University, Hokkaido University, 28 December 2016, https://www.global.hokudai.ac.jp/blog/hokkaido-u-an-important-hub-for-research-into-indigenous-peoples/.

Kato, Hirofumi. “The Ainu and Japanese Archaeology: A change of perspective.” Japanese Journal of Archaeology 4 (2017): 185-190. 2019. Web. 22 Sept. 2019.

Further Reading:

https://www.tofugu.com/japan/ainu-japan/

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/how-bear-worshipping-group-in-japan-fought-for-cultural-relevance-180965281/

Alcohol production and consumption is present in almost every major culture in the world, with most societies cultivating their own unique alcoholic beverages. Alcohol can often reveal important information about the spiritual and social structure of an ancient society, as well as show how far the culture’s influence may have spread.

The oldest alcoholic beverage ever found was in Jiahu, a settlement in North-Eastern China dating back to around 7000 B.C. (McGovern 2019)  Archaeologists from The Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology have been excavating the site since the 1980s, and discovered- after performing chemical analysis of the residue on ceramic pots- trace amounts of a fermented beverage made from honey, rice, and fruit.  (McGovern 2019)

Image 1: Neolithic jars used to hold early alcoholic beverages, discovered at Jiahu. ca. 7000-6600 B.C. Photo: Z Juzhong, Z. Zhang, and Henan Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology

Image 2: Modern day beverage produced to mimic the alcohol found at Jiahu Photo: Dogfish Brewery

The alcohol discovered at Jiahu does not neatly fit into any of our modern day classifications such as beer or cider, however, wine has been in production for around 7,000 years, with the earliest examples being traced back to 5,400 in present day northwestern Iran. (Malin 2014)  Ancient Egypt is known as one of the biggest producers of wine and beer in the ancient world, connecting the highest and lowest on the social pyramid in the shared enjoyment of drinking. Models of breweries, often put alongside bakeries, have given valuable insight into the scale of the brewing operations of the time, as well as indicating the influential role played by women handling alcohol production. (Mark 2017)

Image 3: Model Bakery and Brewery found in the tomb of Ancient Egyption chancellor Meketre. ca. 1981-1975 B.C. Photo: The Metropolitan Museum of Art

There was a good deal of disagreement concerning alcohol consumption in Ancient Greece, with philosophers like Aristotle and Zeno critiquing drunkness, and members of the Dionysian cult arguing that “intoxication brought them closer to their deity.” (Hanson 1997) Discovery of the Theatre of Dionysus in Athens indicates the importance of drinking in Greek Culture, especially in relation to religion. Dionysus, the god of the grape harvest, winemaking, and wine was the subject of many festivals in which revelers would consume vast amounts of wine in a sort of frenzy to celebrate the god. (Taylor 2019) Alcohol was often seen as a way to connect with the gods and show piety through intoxication. Scenes depicted on greek pottery found in Athens indicate that the vessel was intended to hold beer or wine, showing gods, mythological beings, and humans consuming alcohol together. 

Image 4: Greek vase made to hold wine at events, showing Dionysus with a band of fellow drinkers and a satyr leading the way. ca. 440 B.C.E. Photo: The Walters Art Museum

Alcohol consumption is one of the clearest connections found between early societies and our modern day way of life. The consumption of alcohol has manifested itself differently over the ages and across the globe, but has allowed us to track advancements in science, technology, and communication between groups.   Archaeological discoveries relating to fermentation show the nature of scientific exploration at times was religion was highly influential, and the ways in which mythology was tied to drinking. 

References

Hanson, David J. 

1997  Alcohol among the Greeks and Romans: They Enjoyed Drinking. Alcohol Problems and Solutions 

Malin, Joshua

2014  10 Famous Ancient Archaeological Wine Discoveries. Vinepair

Mark, Joshua J. 

2017  Beer in Ancient Egypt. Ancient History Encyclopedia 

McGovern, Patrick 

2019  The Earliest Alcoholic Beverage in the World. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology

Taylor, Brian D. 

2019  The Festival of Dionysus: The Origins of Ancient Greek Theater. Bright Hub Education 

Additional Reading 

For more on alcohol’s long-lasting impact on human societies: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/02/alcohol-discovery-addiction-booze-human-culture/  

For more on the re-creation of ancient alcoholic drinks: https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-beer-archaeologist-17016372/ 

Images

Image 1: https://japanesemythology.wordpress.com/beer-was-brewed-in-jiahu-northern-china-9000-years-ago/   

Image 2: https://www.dogfish.com/brewery/beer/chateau-jiahu 

Image 3: https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/20.3.12/  

Image 4: https://art.thewalters.org/detail/29124/red-figure-bell-krater/  

In June of this year, Bolshaya Udina, a formerly extinct volcano in Eastern Russia was declared active due to increased seismic activity. Ensuing predictions of a Vesuvius size eruption sparked memories of Pompeii’s infamous demise in 79 A.D., an event that both archeologists and volcanologists are still working to fully dissect(Osborne 2019a). With the looming possibility of another large scale catastrophe, many are turning to those same researchers to uncover what Pompeii’s past can disclose about Bolshaya Udina’s future(Scandone et al. 2019). 

Bolshaya Udina, the now active volcano with potential to cause Pompeii-like conditions(Gramling 2019).

Unfortunately enough, tensions between volcanologists and archeologists studying the site are hindering fruitful collaboration. Since the early eighteenth century, archeologists have been documenting the stratigraphic record of Pompeii, using the law of superimposition, stating that the lowest layers of a site form first, to understand the workings and development of Roman life in the city. Excavations yielding frescoes, mosaic tiles, fountains, and courtyards have revitalized the city, solidifying it as a dynamic archeological wonder that the world has remained fascinated with for centuries(Garcia-Navarro 2019). Still, a crucial element of the city’s history remains overlooked by the field: its demise.

The most recent 1944 eruption of Mount Vesuvius(Osborne 2019b).

In the pursuit of artifacts and features trapped within the ash sealed stratigraphy of the land, archeologists have been accused of destroying the evidence of volcanology. Volcanology uses volcanic deposits to explain how people died, and so, removal of these deposits in the excavation process is, essentially, ignoring elements of the stratigraphic record. Despite pleas from volcanologists to preserve the volcanic evidence, archeologists continue to cut through sites, regularly removing deposit layers(Osbourne 2019b). 

The value of forgoing excavation or allowing volcanologists to oversee stratigraphic record keeping has been proven useful before. In the 1980s, studies of deposits in newly excavated sites, revealed that the people of Pompeii died from pyroclastic flow, a combination of volcanic gas clouds and magma. Before this volcanological study, however, it was assumed that pumice rain was responsible for killing Pompeii’s population. Thus, this breakthrough prompted a change in strategy for preparing for future eruptions(Osbourne 2019b). Today, the hope is to again use the two fields to understand how pyroclastic flows would sweep around existing buildings, so that current and future populations, like those near Bolshaya Udina, living in similar conditions can adapt accordingly(Solly 2019).

Though there is a trend of geologic history being destroyed for the sake of recording cultural history, progress is being made. Many volcanologists remain barred from entering archaeological sites in Pompeii, but agreements were recently made between researchers allowing volcanologists from the University of Naples Federico II to study stratigraphy alongside archeologists. With the goal of collaboration between the disciplines, volcanologists are being given access to study damage to victims of Vesuvius based on different eruptive stages by recording stratigraphy, taking samples, and mapping damage(Osborne 2019b).

With no projection of when Bolshaya Udina will erupt, we are simply left to wonder if an incomplete record of the past will fix itself in time to offer a useful vision for the future. 

References

Garcia-Navarro, Lulu 

2019  Volcano Experts and Archeologists are Clashing over Access to Study Pompeii. NPR, July 28, 2019. 

https://www.npr.org/2019/07/28/745989999/volcano-experts-and-archaeologists-are-clashing-over-access-to-study-pompeii, accessed  September 21, 2019.

Gramling, Caroline

2019  Is a long-dormant Russian volcano waking up? It’s complicated. ScienceNews, June 17, 2019. 

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/dormant-russia-volcano-bolshaya-udina-waking-complicated, accessed September 21, 2019. 

Osborne, Hannah

2019  Extinct Russian Volcano Has Woken Up and Could Unleash ‘Pompeii-Size’ Eruption, Scientists Warn. Newsweek, June 6, 2019.

https://www.newsweek.com/russia-extinct-volcano-woken-pompeii-eruption-1442479, accessed  September 21, 2019.

Osborne, Hannah

2019  Pompeii Archaeologists Committing Vandalism to Volcanology by Destroying History Of Vesuvius Eruption, Scientists Claim. Newsweek, July 17, 2019.

https://www.newsweek.com/popmpeii-archaeologists-vandalism-vesuvius-eruption-1449676, accessed September 21, 2019.

Scandone, Roberto & Lisetta Giacomelli, Mauro Rosi, Christopher Kilburn 

2019  Preserve Mount Vesuvius history in Pompeii’s. Nature, July 9, 2019.

https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-02097-3, accessed September 21, 2019.

Solly, Meilan

2019  Why Archaeologists and Volcanologists Are Clashing Over Excavations at Pompeii. Smithsonian, July 24, 2019.

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/why-archaeologists-and-volcanologists-are-clashing-over-excavations-pompeii-180972716/, accessed  September 21, 2019.

Additional Reading 

Digging Deeper into Pompeii’s Past 

https://www.archaeology.org/issues/344-1907/features/7714-pompeii-new-investigations 

Extinct volcano has woken up and scientists say it could erupt ‘at any moment’

https://www.cnn.com/2019/06/07/europe/russia-volcano-scli-intl-scn/ 

Did Vesuvius Vaporize its Victims? 

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/10/news-pompeii-deaths-vesuvius-vaporized-skulls-exploded-chemistry/

Archaeologic discoveries can instantly change the preconceived ideas of home. In Delaware, local historians were amazed by the product of their excavation at Avery’s Rest in the Rehoboth Bay area (Daley 2017). The team of archaeologists were concerned about Avery’s Rest, a historical landmark in Delaware, being destroyed by development (Peikes 2017). In an attempt to salvage remaining artifacts, the team stumbled upon 11 burial sites dating to the late 1600s (Denison 2017). Further adding to the information gained, three of the burials were identified as African descent by the Smithsonian Institution (Denison 2017). This discovery provides historians the earliest proof of slavery in Delaware (Denison 2017). As for the family as a whole, the family worked hard. The Smithsonian Institution conducted a series of DNA tests on the remains found to not only identify their descent, but the conditions their bodies faced (Peikes 2017). Especially in the southern Delaware region (where Rehoboth can be located), the absurd amount of corn grown in the area is commonly joked about. Interestingly enough, Peikes’ article explains that the those who resided on the Avery plantation had a poor diet that contributed to the rotting of their teeth (2017). The culprit? Corn.

Figure 1: A cellar exvacation at Avery’s Rest in Rehoboth Beach, Delaware.

Such a connection seems small on its own, but the implications are great. When paired with other discoveries throughout the site, it can be observed how Delaware has changed over time and how it has not. Examples like growing corn show a connection between our generation and the Avery’s, but things such as changes within human anatomy seen through today’s DNA testing illustrate some differences. The origin of those discovered at Avery’s Rest is also important because it can help give an idea of Delaware’s demographic in the 17^th century. Surely there were many Europeans, but where exactly did they originate from? Questions like this help put Delaware’s current demographic in perspective and offer potential familial ties for natives to the area. Looking at the broader picture, other preconceived ideas or assumptions can be disproved. For example, the assumption of not having slavery in the north can be disproved by a discovery like this.

Figure 2: A map of Avery’s Rest that details the 11 burial sites.

It’s strange to picture Delaware as anything other than what it is today, however this discovery provides brand new insight on historical Delaware and what life was like in the 17^th century. By filling in these gaps, Delawareans and historians alike can get a clearer picture of what the former refer to as home.

References:

Daley, Jason. “Remains Tell Stories of Delaware’s Earliest Enslaved.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 8 Dec. 2017, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/remains-tell-story-delawares-earliest-slaves-180967456/.

Denison, Doug. “Archaeological Discovery Writes New Chapter in Delaware’s Early Colonial History.” Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs – State of Delaware, 13 Dec. 2017, https://history.delaware.gov/2017/12/13/archaeological-discovery-writes-new-chapter-in-delawares-early-colonial-history/.

Peikes, Katie. “Rehoboth Archeological Discovery Holds Clues to Delaware’s Earliest Settlers, Slaves.” Delaware First Media, 6 Dec. 2017, https://www.delawarepublic.org/post/rehoboth-archeological-discovery-holds-clues-delawares-earliest-settlers-slaves.

Images:

Figure #1 = https://www.delawarearchaeology.org/projects/averys-rest/

Firgue #2 = https://www.delawareonline.com/story/news/local/2017/12/05/rehoboth-discovery-may-change-delaware-history/898848001/

Additional Reading:

• https://www.delawarearchaeology.org
• https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/12/05/an-archaeological-dig-unearths-one-of-the-earliest-slave-remains-in-delaware/
• https://naturalhistory.si.edu/education/teaching-resources/social-studies/forensic-anthropology

There are copious beliefs and practices surrounding the big question: what happens after life? A similarly confounding question arises next—what to bring? Various cultures throughout history have formulated their own answers.

Popular belief would have that the Vikings sent their dead out to sea on a ship before it bursts into flames. However, building such ships was likely a costly affair, and indeed, Lindholm Høje in Denmark (Figure 1) tells a different story. Considered to be Scandinavia’s largest burial sites at 682 graves and 150 stone ships, Lindholm Høje boasts burials from both the Iron Age and the Viking Age (VisitAalborg 2012).

Figure 1. Graves at Lindholm Høje. Notice the many oval graves that resemble the outline of a ship. Photo: Knud Erik Christensen.

The typical grave was shaped like either a triangle or a ship, perhaps to symbolically act as the vessel upon which the deceased may travel to the afterlife. Archaeologists have found numerous possessions, from jewelry and weapons to animals and slaves, buried with their owners–these were probably for the dead to bring with them into the next world. Some were even buried with actual boats, but that was reserved for those of high status, such as the case of the Oseberg ship (Figure 2).

Figure 2. The Oseberg Viking ship excavation. Housed a Viking queen of AD 834. (Morgan 2018) Photo: Museum of Cultural History, UiO/Olaf Væring.

Another reason for the burial of goods might have been to satisfy the dead, so they may not return as draugr–revenants–and cause trouble for the living (Mingren 2018). In addition to the clues about Viking beliefs left within the burial sites, archaeologists have also been able to date many of the graves based on their associated artifacts.

Archaeologists can learn a lot about the life of a culture through the way it treats its dead; sometimes, burial sites become the only worthy sources of investigation.  For example, the horse-riding nomads of the Eurasian Steppes known as Scythians left little trace, with the exception of their grand kurgans–royal mounds of earth often reaching up to 15 meters in height (Parzinger 2017), under which reside catacombs filled with ornate treasures (Figures 3 & 4).

Figure 3. A reconstruction of a kurgan and the underlying catacombs. Photo: Rolle et al. as used by Herman Parzinger.

Figure 4. A golden diadem found inside of a kurgan.The diadem depicts a horned creature, a winged creature, and a creature being ridden by a human. Photo: Central State Museum of the Republic of Kazakhstan in Almaty, as used by Kat McAlpine.

The artifacts from the kurgans, paired with the feat of building the kurgans themselves, show the immense wealth of those buried.

Besides the evidence of social class, there is a lot to be learned of the Scythians’ belief system. In a kurgan unearthed in 2013, two golden vases were discovered with black residue–tests later came back positive for opium and cannabis, suggesting drug-fueled rituals (Curry 2016). In another kurgan, the buried were accompanied by 13 sacrificed horses, which were all “decorated to resemble supernatural creatures, and wearing leather masks with wooden horns painstakingly decorated with gold leaf” (McAlpine 2012, par. 6). Often, horses seem to be deified in the artifacts left by Scythians, which suggests that they were in fact regarded as divine.  There is still mystery surrounding the Scythians’ beliefs however, as other supernatural animals, such as snow leopards with wings, can be seen depicted in Scythian artifacts.

Numerous other cultures have their variations of burial rites, and such rites strongly reflect their belief systems. Clearly, how a culture treats its dead is indicative of its ways of life.

Further reading:

More About Lindholm Høje

http://www.viking.no/e/info-sheets/denmark/norresundby/lind.htm

https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCUiIbWxsGC-ZWqAGWxiDStA

Two Viking Boat Graves—With a Warrior Inside—Found in Sweden

https://www.history.com/news/viking-boat-grave-discovery-sweden

More About Scythians

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Scythian#ref1216725

Other Burial Customs Today

https://ideas.ted.com/11-fascinating-funeral-traditions-from-around-the-globe/

https://www.thoughtco.com/death-and-burial-customs-1421757

References:

Curry, Andrew

August 2016  Spectacular new discoveries from the Caucasus set the stage for a

dramatic hilltop ritual. Archaeological Institute of America. Electronic Document.

https://www.archaeology.org/issues/220-1607/features/4560-rites-of-the-scythians

McAlpine, Katy J.

August 2012  Burial Mounds Preserve Culture of Ancient Nomads in Kazakhstan.

  Smithsonian. Electronic Document.

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/burial-mounds-preserve-culture-of-ancient-nomads-in-kazakhstan-31331725/

Mingren, Wu

December 2018  What Really Happened at Viking Funerals? It’s Not What You Think!

  Ancient Origins. Electronic Document.

https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-ancient-traditions/viking-funerals-0011109

Morgan, Thad

November 2018 How Did The Vikings Honor Their Dead? History. Electronic Document.

https://www.history.com/news/how-did-the-vikings-honor-their-dead

Parzinger, Herman

November 2017  Burial mounds of Scythian elites in the Eurasian steppe: New

discoveries. Journal of the British Academy, 5: 331–355.

DOI https://doi.org/10.85871/jba/005.331

VisitAalborg

2012  Lindholm Høje. VisitAalborg. Electronic Document.

https://www.visitaalborg.com/ln-int/lindholm-hoje-gdk596081

Images:

Figure 1. https://files.guidedanmark.org/files/483/483_309972.jpg?qfix

Figure 2. https://www.khm.uio.no/english/visit-us/viking-ship-museum/exhibitions/oseberg/oseberg-excavation/a-cfo0167-skip-folk-900px.jpg

Figure 3. https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/sites/default/files/12%20Parzinger%201836%20%28Final%29_0.pdf

Figure 4. https://thumbs-prod.si-cdn.com/CoB3oxuuEkvAsojQoRKRRHn_1qQ=/fit-in/1072×0/https://public-media.si-cdn.com/filer/31/e3/31e33d53-9083-4543-ab00-ed5cdfa03fcb/diadem-300×108.jpg