The environment can reveal a lot about a culture. If the environment is favorable for agriculture, people take up a sedentary lifestyle. If it is the opposite, or people have access to additional resources, agriculture is less likely to be a focus. Yet this general rule is challenged by the Inca Empire, and their persistence to pursue agriculture in a region unfavorable to crops.

The basic process of creating terraces.

Mountain climates do not inherently support agriculture. Little precipitation falls in the Andes. Steep slopes also prevent growth of plants as what little precipitation that does fall erodes soil and thus washes plants away. Mountain temperatures fluctuate, often becoming much colder at night and shortening the growing season.
However, the Incas found a way around these problems, with terrace agriculture. By cutting flat planes into the mountain, the Incas were able to create areas of suitable farmland. Bounded by stone walls, these areas are able to withstand the problems associated with Mountain climates. Along with domesticated species of plants suited to harsh conditions, the Incas were able to farm.
Yet why would the Incas put in the tremendous amount of work to make an area unsuitable for sedentary life, suitable? The answer lies within the environment. Cultures that struggle with agriculture often have earlier examples of rock art (signs of praying to the Gods). As religion is spurred by a harsh environment, it becomes even more central to the culture.
In the case of the Incas, religion played a huge role in their culture, likely due to the environment. As to why they would have stayed, or even continued higher; (major areas like Machu Picchu and Cuzco are over 7,000 ft. above sea level) this is likely due to being closer to heaven (the Inca highly revered their sun God, Inti). As religion led to the Incas moving up in altitude, the environment only became tougher for a sedentary lifestyle. Yet the practice of terrace farming shows the Incas dedication to their lifestyle, and persistence as a people.

A ruin of an Inca temple in Pisac, Peru.

Though harsh in terms of climate, the Andes region is bountiful concerning precious medals. The existence of the precious metals gold and silver would have confirmed that they were in a holy area of the world, and that their connection to their Gods would only be improved as they increased in altitude. The use of these metals in Inca throne rooms and temples shows the influence the environment had upon their lives.
Through just the knowledge of the environment, a lot can be seen about a culture. What environmental challenges are presented determine what kind of lifestyle inhabitants will lead. In the case of the Incas, their harsh conditions resulted in creativity and adaptation against the natural environment, so as to pursue their religious lifestyle. Understanding how environmental conditions pressure and shape a human life is imperative to understanding a culture.

Sources:
http://www.ushistory.org/civ/11c.asp
http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/theconquestofperu/p/The-Treasure-Of-The-Inca.htm
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/farming-like-the-incas-70263217/?device=ipad&no-ist=&page=1
http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/articles/geography/terracefarming.htm

Further Reading:
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/1913/04/machu-picchu/bingham-text/1
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/ancient-civilizations-central-andes-180955910/

Images:
http://www.penfield.edu/webpages/pgalgovich/photos/1097021/2inca%20terrace%20farming.jpg

https://annesleyb.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/screen-shot-2011-10-25-at-1-09-30-pm.png

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Transportation, agriculture, and companionship—Humans are significantly affected by interactions with animals. Our modern lifestyles would not be possible without the domestication of animals. When did humans start to have pets? Why did pets and other domestic animals begin to matter? How were they used? These are questions that archaeologists ask themselves and have done their best to answer.

Pets of our ancestors are significantly different than ones we keep today. Using a dog jaw found in Switzerland as evidence, archaeologists have estimated that dogs were first domesticated around 14000 to 14600 years ago, but humans have selectively breaded for

Dog jaw found in Swiss cave (c. 14000 years ago)

desired traits, causing dramatic changes in the physical structure of animals. Different societies selected for different characteristics, including  fur color, ability, and shape. The same qualities are found in cat remains, though cats are estimated to be domesticated around 7500 B.C. While most would like to hear more about the exciting shift of our furry friends from wild hunter to companion, the most striking information regarding the domestication of animals is looking at farm domestication and how groups of people shifted from nomadic bands to pastoral, sedentary groups.

The first animals thought to be domesticated for agricultural endeavors were sheep between 11000 and 9000 B.C., and goats were domesticated shortly after. These animals were used for meat, milk, and fur. Bands of people at this time were still primarily nomadic. Remains for sheep were first found in the Middle East, where there are high proportions of bones of one year old sheep. Dating for the domestication of these animals is possible by looking at the remains of those who lived in the area and finding when human beings were able to process lactose. There was an incredible advantage for those who could digest lactose because of high amounts of calories available from milk. Evidence is also available about milk use through 7000 year old perforated pottery that was used for cheese production. Use of this type of potter was proven by experimental archaeology and chemical analysis of the clay, which found milk fats inside the pottery.

Pottery that was used for cheese straining, found in Poland

Pigs and cattle were domesticated slightly later, around 7000 B.C., but these remains are usually found with societies that were more sedentary.

One of the main reasons to domesticate animals is because there is always a constant, readily available, and reliable source of food. If one goes hunting, there are no chances that he or she will return with meat for his or her community. If one hunts too many animals, the food will spoil, and the food will be wasted. Domesticating animals also provided for suitable manure for farming, hides and wool for coats, and bones for tools. Through the domestication of animals, the concept of staying in one place was a viable option for people. The need to constantly move for a steady supply of food was outdated, and we see the rise of civilizations and larger social organizations as animals domestication begins.

Sources:

http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab57

http://www.wired.com/2010/07/oldest_dog

http://www.jyi.org/issue/our-furry-friends-the-history-of-animal-domestication/

http://www.nature.com/news/archaeology-the-milk-revolution-1.13471

http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/new-discovery-of-7000-year-old-cheese-puts-your-trader-joes-aged-gouda-to-shame-159138568/?no-ist

Further Readings:

http://anthropology.si.edu/archaeobio/images/zederetal_2006_docdom_tig.pdf

http://www.livinganthropologically.com/anthropology/domestication-of-plants-and-animals/

http://www.livinganthropologically.com/anthropology/many-origins-of-agriculture/

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Archaeologists often find graves with little to no accompanying documentation of the people buried or their communities and cultures. It is the job of the archaeologist to figure out as much about the deceased as possible by looking at the inscription, composition, and location of their gravestones.

Grave of Casimir Perier in Père Lachaise Cemetery

Pictured above is the grave of a Casimir Perier, born on October 21, 1777, died on May 16, 1832. With the Internet, I can easily learn who he was, how he died, when he died, and what he did when he was alive. But what if I didn’t have access to such a large database? If the only clue I had was the gravestone itself, how would I figure out what kind of person was buried there?

I would have to think like an archaeologist.

Perier’s grave is one of the few tombs with it’s own lawn and garden area. In fact, it is completely surrounded by a fence. This discourages the public from walking up to the grave, and suggests that distance between the two was desired at the time of its erection.

Perrier’s grave is the centerpiece of this section of the cemetery.

Without reading the tomb inscriptions, it’s easy to see that the person buried here was not only important but was prosperous in either money or friends. The monument is made of marble and topped with a bronze statue of Casimir Perier. Marble is more expensive than the stone used for the majority graves seen in the Père Lachaise Cemetery. Furthermore, the grave is almost four meters high, making it one of the tallest and therefore most expensive monuments in the cemetery. The people that buried him made sure his grave was far more impressive than those nearby; a great amount of money went into his grave. Only a wealthy man, or one with wealthy friends could afford to be buried here.

On top of the grave, Perier is garbed in a toga over regular European style clothing, a combination only seen on statues of diplomats. He holds a plaque that reads “ Charte De 1830.” On the bottom of the statue lies an excerpt above lady eloquence that roughly translates to “Seven times elected Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet under Louis Philippe I. Defended eloquence and courage and freedom and national dignity in the interior peace.” I now know exactly who Perier worked for, how long he held his position, when he was most influential, and what direct effect it had on the nation.

Without any information from the internet I’ve discovered that Casimir Perier was known for his eloquence and served as Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet under King Philippe I seven times. He was most influential as Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet in 1830, and was quintessential to upholding France’s dignity. He was greatly valued in life, and his monument in death far outshines those around it. The fencing, however, is used to aesthetically create a barrier from anyone walking through the cemetery. His time as president created disparity between the government and the public.

After confirming that the information gathered from Perier’s tomb is indeed accurate, it’s easy to see why archaeologists use graves to understand the lives of the deceased. The inscription, composition, and location of gravestones are all key in learning more about past communities, and in Caismir Perier’s case, whole nations.

Pictures found at:

Pere Lachaise Cemetery ~ Paris (Photo Gallery)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Grave_of_Casimir_Pierre_Perier

Reference websites:

http://www.britannica.com/biography/Casimir-Pierre-Perier

http://www.archive.org/stream/archivesdelartfr13sociuoft#page/336/mode/2up

For more information:

http://www.biography.com/people/casimir-périer-40984#synopsis

http://www.histoire-image.org/site/oeuvre/analyse.php?i=163 (French)

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The past is a place full of wonder, mystery, and most importantly, the answers to the lives of our ancestors. Social Archeology is the study of past societies that instead of focusing on the individual focuses on the society as a whole. By doing so, archeologists are able to explore the culture and the systems of living within past societies and ultimately shed light on societies who have been lost in history.

The Minoan Civilization, who rose during the Bronze Age, was discovered on the Mediterranean Island of Crete and dates from 2600 B.C to 1150 B.C. It was first discovered by Sir Arthur Evans in 1900 during an excavation of Knossos, an ancient Minoan palace. His findings within the palace led him to believe that there was a possible ancient civilization on Crete which was the home to the legendary King Minos, hence why he named the Civilization Minoan.

Knossos Palace as would’ve appeared during the Neopalatial Period (1700 B.C-1400 B.C)

Most of the artifacts found upon excavation originated during the Propatial Period (1900 -1700 B.C) and Neopalitial Period (1700-1400 B.C).  It was also during these periods that the Minoans built their four principal palaces: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, and Zakros. The grandeur of these palaces reflected how sophisticated and advanced the Minoan Civilization was. Through archeological finds, it was concluded that these palaces served as central structures of trade, politics, and religion. Within these palaces archeologist found remains to suggest that materials such as wines, oil, grain, and ceramics were stored there. Archeologists also found swords, arrow heads, armors and helmets as well as fortified towns and settlements. These all suggest that the Minoan Civilization was so massive they needed central structures for food storages as well as means to defend themselves against neighboring attacks. Another major find was the discovery of one of the first examples of writing in the Aeagan world, Linear A.

Clay tablet inscribed on both sides with the undeciphered script Linear A

Artifacts have been found with the writing which suggests that the Minoans used the writing system for religious and authoritative functions. The Minoans were intelligent enough to produce their own form of written history though it is still in the process of being deciphered. Also, artifacts found in the city of Gournia such as clay pots, copper, bronze, stone vases suggest to archeologist that Minoan citizens were gifted in the skills of pottery making and metal working since they found similar items on settlements throughout the civilization.

By simple excavating several sites Archeologists have been able to slowly piece together the lives of those who inhabited the Minoan Civilization as well as the main means of commerce and sustainability. Unfortunately, Minoan Crete is a civilization wrapped in speculation. Archeologists are unclear of how and why the civilization disappeared from history and there is still debate on how it met its fateful end. Though we may not know all the answers, the site still continues to tell the story of people who were able to create one of the most complex civilizations in Greek history.

My Sources:

http://archaeology.org/issues/174-1505/features/3145-crete-minoans-gournia-excavations#art_page6

http://www.ancient.eu/Minoan_Civilization/

Minoan Art

Further Reading:

Minoan Archeological Sites

Who Were The Minoans?

The Fall of the Minoans

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Some 250 miles south of Portland, Oregon, Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States. However, it did not start this way. It was once the top of Mount Mazama, a supervolcano in the Cascade Range that towered over 12,000 feet above sea level. The transition from enormous mountain to the caldera it is today was explosive: about 7,700 years ago Mount Mazama erupted, emptying twelve cubic miles of lava and enormous amounts of pumice out of its magma chamber in mere days, during an eruption forty times as powerful as the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. The magma chamber then collapsed in on itself, forming the caldera, which filled to form Crater Lake.

Extent of Mount Mazama Ash Cloud Sedimentation

During this explosion, Mount Mazama also erupted an enormous ash plume.This is where archaeology ties in. The ash cloud was so immense that it stretched over nearly the entire northwest, as far north as Alberta, Canada. This ash layer, which soon cooled to a solid, remains an easily visible lighter layer of sediment throughout this whole area, providing archaeologists studying much of the Pacific Northwest with a definitive time stamp for relative dating. This method of dating uses stratifigraphy, which analyzes sedimentary layers and the finds contained within them to determine their dates in relation to each other and learn what the environment was like at the time the layer formed.

The ash layer is visibly lighter in color compared to the surrounding sediment layers

This and other kinds of archaeological survey and dating, mostly Potassium-Argon dating of igneous rocks, have also provided evidence on how Mount Mazama evolved and its development since its most recent eruption. The oldest lava flows from Mount Mazama are 400,000 to 420,000 years old, and in between then and now there are lava flows of varying ages. Mount Mazama itself is made up of many smaller shield volcanoes and stratovolcanoes that, through time, eruptions, and glaciation merged into one supervolcano before its ultimate eruption and collapse. Remnants of the cones of these other volcanoes remain, and geologists and archaeologists can date the lava they erupted to find how Mount Mazama itself evolved.

A diagram of the sediment layers at Mount Bachelor, 100 miles from Crater Lake, shows the stratigraphy of Mount Mazama ash

Studying the volcano itself gives archaeologist valuable context for understanding the cultures of this area. For the Klamath people of Northern California and Southern Oregon, Mount Mazama and Crater Lake are central to their cultural identity and history. They had lived in the area for thousands of years before the most recent catastrophic eruption, and believed Mount Mazama and the region’s other volcanoes to be the home of spirits. In their cultural belief, the eruption happened when the spirit of the underworld broke out, and their culture’s spirit chief forced him back, thus trapping him in the collapsed volcano. The rain that then came to put out the fires filled the crater to form Crater Lake, a sacred site which they kept secret from outsiders until a white settler accidentally discovered it in 1852. For archaeologists, understanding Mount Mazama is critical to understanding their cultural history.

Sources

http://www.craterlakeinstitute.com/crater-lake-news/how-crater-lake-came-to-be.htm

http://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/mt_mazama/#.Vftf14b3arX

http://www.siskiyous.edu/class/geol0830/mazamaguide2013.pdf

http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/crater-lake

Further Reading

The legends behind Crater Lake:

http://oe.oregonexplorer.info/craterlake/history.html#legend

Thundereggs: an incredibly cool geologic phenomenon left behind by Mount Mazama’s eruption:

http://traveloregon.com/trip-ideas/grants-getaways/thunder-eggs-oregon-treasures-in-the-dirt/

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