An artifact found in northern Israel decades ago has undergone recent lab research to unveil new information about early human development in the Far East (region of modern day Eastern Europe and Middle East). A village in the Hula Valley was found with a collection of over one thousand bird bones, seven of which contained markings and holes in them. Using modern dating and analyzing techniques, these bones were confirmed to be sound instruments from Natufian Culture. The Natufians were a prehistoric human society that lived in the Levant which is an area that spans over modern Israel, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq. These people are estimated to have lived here between 13000 BCE and 9000 BCE, during a period in human history when the transitioning from a nomadic lifestyle to cultivating crops began.
Region of the Levant, where the artifacts were found and where the Natufians lived
These sound instruments are thought to be the first found in the Far East, giving us more understanding of what life was like for the Natufians during such an important episode of human history. In class this week we discussed dating and analyzing techniques that archeologists use to gain more knowledge from artifacts and sites. Previous information about the Natufians includes that they are a society from the Stone Age culture, which can be found through their creation and use of stone tools. Seriation was used here to be able to place the time that this society took place. By understanding that they used stone tools, they are able to know that the Natufians were older than any society in the Bronze or Iron ages. Using micro-CT scans of the bird bones, the perforations could be linked to be Natufian as the holes in the bone could be confirmed as being made with stone tools. The holes were also spaced on intervals, backing the idea that the instrument was made purposefully. Further evidence that the bird bones were an instrument can be found by looking at the artifact through a microscope, as signs of wear from holding the instrument could be seen.
Image of the 7 bird bone instruments found
These new technologies and data methods are able to provide us with an extensive amount of information about ancient societies. By creating a modern replica of the bone instrument, the sounds that would have been produced from it can be heard. The result is a sharp, high-pitched tone, which leads scientists to hypothesize that while it could still be used for musical purposes, it may have been used to communicate with one another, as a tool while hunting, or as a way to communicate with birds.
Regardless of what the actual purpose of the instrument was, new analysis techniques show us that we can continue to broaden our understanding of ancient societies during a time in history of such importance.
Seriation has been an archaeological tool since the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Seriation is known as a technique used to arrange several artifacts, sites, and/or events in a chronological sequence such that each discovery has its own timeline and identity. It is also useful to archaeologists in depicting the order of their discoveries for informational and historical use. The first and most notable person to utilize this tool was Sir Williams Flinders-Petrie. Upon discovery of several cemetery sites along the Nile River, he found that there was no efficient way to chronologically order the sites. Eventually, he discovered a number of pottery artifacts across the cemeteries. By identifying the different styles of each artifact as they were discovered, he found that the change in style was evolutionary, just as a ford automobile has had stylistic changes since the Model A in 1903. Petrie was able to revolutionize archaeology. Instead of characterizing artifacts by their design, such as “Egyptian pots”, he was able to consistently identify what period in history an artifact had come from and what those findings revealed about other artifacts buried with it or around it (Hirst 2020).
Date ranges for ancient pottery as styles develop and evolve
Seriation works because the styles of items will always evolve over time. Thus, the original technique creates an effective, yet tedious way of matching an artifact to its time period. The most conventional method of seriation involves taking samples of a dig site or junkyard and picking apart the different artifacts in the pile until what is being searched for is found in its numerous styles. This information (based on the style of each artifact and at what site it was found in) is then graphed by hand.
Present day seriation techniques are much more technological. Computers run matrices to depict this same data much faster, just as any analytical data technique has evolved to incorporate computers and coding. The computers generate bar graphs that show the different styles of a specific artifact that are found at different sites. A more well-known technique that has almost replaced the original methods of seriation is radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon dating implements the organic material of an artifact instead of only dating an item based on the way it looks compared to others. Countless other dating techniques implement pieces of the methods used for seriation such as stratigraphy, typology, and even DNA analysis. Seriation is an integral part of archaeologists’ discovery procedures and has assisted archaeologists in learning more and more about human behavior and connecting the past to the present.
“Battleship curve” bar graph to show arrangement of the same type of artifact found at different lettered sites as this particular artifact evolves. (Each color represents a newer model of the item).
References:
Brauer, George. June, 2006. “An Exercise in Seriation Dating.” Office of Social Studies Baltimore County Public Schools, Towson, Maryland. https://documents.saa.org/container/docs/default-source/doc-teachingarchaeology/seriation_lesson.pdf?sfvrsn=bdae50c0_6#:~:text=This%20method%20of%20assigning%20dates,and%20then%20trails%20off%2C%20sometimes
Hirst, Kris. Aug. 27, 2020. “An Introduction to Seriation.” ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/seriation-scientific-dating-before-radiocarbon-170607
Palynology, also known as pollen dating is an archaeological technique involving the study of of pollen grains preserved in sedimentary layers. Plants produce pollen grains, which are released into the environment and eventually settle in sediment, bogs, or lake beds. Over time, the grains become buried and preserved. By analyzing the abundance of pollen grains within sediment, archaologists can determine the types of vegetation that existed in an area during specific times. This information allows archaeologists to reconstruct ancient landscapes and understand human settlement patterns in different areas (ScARF 2020).
Pollen analysis is “arguably the most successful, of the biological techniques used in reconstructing past environments” (ScARF 2020). Pollen dating can provide insights into ecological shifts that impacted ancient societies. A decrease in the diversity of species or the presence of certain indicator species can suggest periods environmental stress, such as drought. Understanding past environmental conditions is crucial to understand the challenges faced by ancient civilizations. (Gordon 2021).
Pollen cannot be well preserved with air present, “but in anaerobic conditions such as a peat bog, pollen is relatively well preserved” (Alphey 2018). Pollen can “also become fossilized in arid conditions if the soil is acidic or cool” (Science Encyclopedia).
A monolith dug from a trench at the National Trust Brockhampton Estate, Herefordshire with polystyrene markers showing the locations of pollen sub-samples (Emily Forster 2015).
Pollen dating is often used to establish relative chronologies. When “polleniferous material is stratified and can be securely dated, it can be used to build up a picture of how individual taxa and plant communities have changed over time” (ScARF 2020). For instance, an increase or decrease in the abundance of pollen from a particular species, such as crops for livestock grazing, can indicate agricultural activity. This allows archaologists to identify a relative date for the onset of human occupation or other particular events within a sight.
Beyond establishing relative chronologies, pollen dating can complement other dating techniques. Pollen grains are “highly suitable for radiocarbon dating” (Fletcher 2018). Pollen walls are made of sporopollenin, a biopolymer that “is derived from atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis” (Fletcher 2018). Pollens grains can therefore indicate the ratios of various carbon isotopes in the atmosphere during particular time periods, allowing scientists to better understand the environment at the time. Pollen grains also have morphological characteristics that allow them to be “identified to different taxonomic groups […] providing valuable contextual information for the dated sample” (Fletcher 2018).
Palynological genera from the Jiyuan Basin containing many taxa typical of the Late Triassic (Lu, Jing et al., 2021).
When combined with radiocarbon dates, pollen analysis can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the environmental context of an archaeological site. This helps archaeologists construct more accurate timelines of past human activity. In addition, pollen dating can provide “relative dates beyond the limits of radiocarbon (40,000 years), and can be used in some places where radiocarbon dates are unobtainable” (Science Encyclopedia).
Pollen dating provides a window into the past that allows researchers to paint a more detailed and accurate picture of human history and the environment in which our ancestors lived. Pollen dating is a testament to the interdisciplinary nature of archaeology, as tiny pollen grains can play a pivotal role in yielding vast insights into our past.
Further Reading
Pollen diagram implications in Peloponnese, Greece
Lu, J., Zhang, P., Dal Corso, J., Yang, M., Wignall, P. B., Greene, S. E., Shao, L., Lyu, D., & Hilton, J. (2021, September 27). Volcanically driven lacustrine ecosystem changes during the Carnian Pluvial Episode (Late Triassic). pnas.org. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2109895118
Archaeologists used seriation techniques to analyze and chronologically order styles of gravestones in New England Puritan societies. Deetz and Dethlefsen, two archaeologists in the 1900s, organized the markers into three main groups of designs and styles: the Death’s Head or Winged Skull, the Cherub, and the Urn and Willow (Figure 1) (Deetz and Dethlefsen 1967). One important note is the use of sedimentary brown sandstone, as opposed to white marble, during the colonial period, providing well-preserved gravestones for archaeologists to observe and analyze.
Figure 1. Appearances of different styles of gravestones from the 1720s to 1820s in a cemetery in Stoneham, Massachusetts (Deetz and Dethlefsen 1967).
Gravestones are unique in their information about the person who died, including dates, professions, family members, and names. Gravestones are, therefore, artifacts that can be analyzed, as in this study, by their styles chronologically, but also the cultural changes that are represented. Deetz and Dethlefsen, along with other historians, analyzed the cultural changes during the time to hypothesize the reason for the evolutions in the styles of gravestones. For example, one conclusion was that the shift from the death’s head (Figure 2) tombstones to the winged cherub was because of a decline in orthodox puritanism. In addition, some cherub-style gravestones include the phrase “In Memory Of..” emphasizing the memorial of the individual rather than a set of religious beliefs (Windsor).
Figure 2. Photo of death’s head engraving on a gravestone in Bradford, Massachusetts dating back to the 1600s (Muise 2018).
The changes in gravestones show shifts in culture and progressions in religion over time. Cherubs were engraved into the gravestones as an effort to resurrect, but as Puritans no longer questioned their salvation, the purpose and style of gravestones shifted as well. Instead, the urn and willow symbolize the grief of the lost loved one.
Since Deetz and Dethlefsen’s study and use of seriation to chronologize gravestone styles in New England Puritan societies, other archaeologists have examined gravestones in other parts of the United States, such as New York where there was more religious and ethnic diversity. Seriation techniques were again used to organize gravestone styles that were similar to each other to create a timeline of symbols used. One of the oldest cemeteries in New York City, Shearith Israel, has headstones from the late 1600s to the early 1800s, most of which lack symbols that were observed in New England (Pickman 2006). However, some similarities exist to the headstone shapes used in Christian society, such as the “three-lobed shape” that symbolizes a bed frame and the final rest associated with death.
Gravestones are essential and valuable artifacts to accompany the analysis of religious and cultural evolution changes. These artifacts contain written evidence and data to characterize symbols and shapes using seriation techniques, which can then be used to hypothesize and draw other conclusions about the developments of society at the time.
“Colonial New York Gravestones.” Archaeology Magazine Online Features. Accessed September 17, 2023.. https://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/nycolonial/graves.html.
“Deaths’ Head, Cherubs, and Urns: Gravestone Iconography in New England.” New England Folklore. Accessed September 17, 2023. http://newenglandfolklore.blogspot.com/2018/09/deaths-head-cherubs-and-urns-gravestone.htm.
“Gravestones – Puritanism.” Revolutionary Windsor: The Windsor Historical Society. Accessed September 17, 2023. https://sites.google.com/a/windsorct.org/revolutionary_windsor/home/gravestones-puritanism.
“Plymouth Colony Gravestone Symbolism.” Historical Archaeology at the University of Illinois. Accessed September 17, 2023. http://www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/deathshead.html.
Figure 1. The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant (Bennett 2019)
On the 26th of April, 1986, the Chernobyl Nuclear power plant in Pripyat, Ukraine exploded. The explosion released massive amounts of radiation into surrounding areas, which forced thousands of city residents to immediately evacuate. According to the United Nations, “…only 50 deaths can be directly attributed to the disaster…,” however “… they predicted a further 4,000 might eventually die as a result of the radiation exposure” from Chernobyl ( 2019). Pripyat has been studied extensively by radiation scientists but will become especially compelling for archaeologists in the future for two main reasons.
First, nuclear reactors use a specific radioactive isotope, Uranium-235, to produce energy. Like all elements, U-235 has a fixed half-life, or the amount of time an element takes to lose half of its radioactive atoms. Scientists use half-lives to determine the degree a radioactive element has decayed, which reveals the element’s age. U-235’s half-life is 700 million years, meaning future archaeologists will be able to determine the decay of the reactor core’s Uranium-235, therefore the era in which Chernobyl exploded.
Figure 2. Visual representation of half-life (Gordon 2017)
Secondly, contrary to many archaeological sites, much of Pripyat will be perfectly preserved for future archaeologists. Both the power plant and city are heavily secured by the Ukrainian government due to the dangers of radiation. Since the evacuation of the city in 1986, citizens have been banned from radioactive areas (the power plant, cemetery, etc.) that will not be safe for thousands of years. Archaeological sites are often damaged or lost due to human activities such as construction or farming. If left undisturbed by the invading Russian forces, Pripyat will likely only be affected by natural disasters and weathering. Future archaeologists will have the Uranium half-life data from the reactor and the city of Pripyat at their disposal to study human activity during the 20th century.
Archaeology relies on context to generate conclusions on culture. Artifacts are meaningless to archaeologists if they can not be directly related to a specific culture or era. Chernobyl provides context in several ways. Radioactive clocks allow scientists to determine the era in which the city existed. Determining when the city existed provides historical insight into social norms, technology, international affairs, etc. Secondly, the perfectly preserved city will be a time capsule into the 20th century, containing a plethora of first-hand accounts. Chernobyl was a tragedy that resulted in the loss of many human lives. Nevertheless, the site will become incredibly important for archaeologists thousands of years in the future.
References:
Gray, Richard. “The True Toll of the Chernobyl Disaster.” Www.bbc.com, 26 July 2019, www.bbc.com/future/article/20190725-will-we-ever-know-chernobyls-true-death-toll#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20official%2C%20internationally. Accessed 17 Sept. 2023.
Photos:
Figure 1. Bennett, Matt. “2 Things We Believe: Chernobyl Was Catastrophic, and We Need Nuclear Power More than Ever.” USA TODAY, USA TODAY, 17 June 2019, www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2019/06/17/hbo-chernobyl-tragic-nuclear-power-safe-clean-vital-column/1409096001/.
When I visited the Tongore Cemetery, I observed a grave for a woman. The writing was legible and extremely clear. The gravestone didn’t list her under her own name – she was listed as “Wife of,” remembered only for her husband instead of herself, her identity erased.
This experience inspired me to look more closely at the intersection of feminism and archaeology, specifically in understanding gender. Our understanding of gender in the past significantly informs our understanding of gender and gender inequality in the present. Archaeological research and interdisciplinary approaches to this research combine to illuminate the complexities of gender in ancient societies. These insights challenge traditional narratives of gender and offer valuable teachings for addressing gender disparities in the present.
Archaeological investigations and studies have revealed the historical roots of gender roles that feed into modern inequalities. Such research highlights that “gender-equal norms passed down from one generation to the next can persist even if institutions or structures incentivize inequality, and vice versa” (Savat-Wustl, 2023). Bias in archaeological interpretations has also marginalized women’s contributions, obscuring their roles in shaping past societies. For example, if a body was discovered with weapons and armor, the body was presumed to be male; if a body was discovered with jewelry and pottery, the body was presumed to be female (Ghodsee, 2023). If weapons are found buried with a woman, they are interpreted as “symbolic” instead of being for actual use, thus erasing the identity and contributions of the female warrior (Davis-Kimball, n.d.). This method of sexing bodies enforces the gender binary and gendered stereotypes, also ignoring the contributions women made to ancient societies.
Weapons recovered from the discovery of a young female warrior
In acknowledging and rectifying these biases, we gain a more accurate understanding of the roles women played in these cultures, and in learning about our past, we learn about our present and future. These interpretations also reshape and redefine how gender was accepted and expressed in ancient societies. The discovery of a potentially non-binary Viking individual challenges rigid binary notions of gender that persist today (Henley, 2021). This discovery emphasizes the fluidity of gender identity in the past, challenging the notion that ancient societies were also limited by the gender binary.
Another critical archaeological insight is the rise of gender inequality during the Neolithic period. Research on this subject suggests that gender disparities began to appear around 8,000 years ago (University of Seville, 2019; Lewis, 2019). Societies transitioned from nomadic hunter-gathering to settled agriculture, creating set roles within each community. These roles steadily became gendered, as cave paintings also started to associate men with violence. Graves and excavated evidence support this notion, as male remains were often found with projectile wounds.
Neolithic cave paintings depicting typical methods of violence
Understanding these specific roots of gender inequality can inform current efforts to dismantle patriarchal structures and hegemonic norms. Similarly, genetic evidence has been used to trace the impact of gender inequality on ancient populations (Kousta, 2017). This research demonstrates how genetic patterns can reflect past social structures and gender-based divisions, specifically those concerning labor. Such insights help us recognize the enduring consequences of gender inequality on human populations; again, this research can help in educating our society on how to reject patriarchy.
The intersection of archaeology and feminism has played a pivotal role in reshaping our understanding of gender. Feminist gender archaeology offers a perspective that critically examines how gender dynamics influenced (and continue to influence) archaeological interpretations. This approach underscores the importance of acknowledging and addressing gender biases in research, ultimately enhancing our understanding of the past. Explicitly feminist archaeology pushes further, highlighting the potential of archaeology to challenge and deconstruct patriarchal norms. It encourages the inclusion of marginalized voices and perspectives in archaeological research, fostering a more inclusive and equitable discipline, while also maintaining the hope that archaeological interpretation might become less biased.
Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. n.d. “Engendering the Past: Practices and Potentials of an Explicitly Feminist Archaeology | Barnard College.” Barnard.edu. Accessed September 17, 2023. https://barnard.edu/engendering-past-practices-and-potentials-explicitly-feminist-archaeology.
Ghodsee, Kristen. 2023. “Gender Oppression Isn’t Inherent to Human Nature.” Jacobin.com. June 22, 2023. https://jacobin.com/2023/06/sexism-patriarchy-gender-history-archeology-feminism.
Henley, Jon. 2021. “1,000-Year-Old Remains in Finland May Be Non-Binary Iron Age Leader.” The Guardian. August 9, 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/09/1000-year-old-remains-in-finland-may-be-non-binary-viking-researchers-say.
Kousta, Stavroula. 2017. “Archaeology: Origin of Gender Inequalities.” Nature Human Behaviour 1 (3). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0059.
Lewis, Dyani. 2019. “Gender Inequality Arose 8000 Years Ago.” Cosmosmagazine.com. June 19, 2019. https://cosmosmagazine.com/history/gender-inequality-arose-8000-years-ago/.
López-Montalvo, Esther. 2015. “Violence in Neolithic Iberia: New Readings of Levantine Rock Art.” Antiquity 89 (344): 309–27. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2014.12.
Savat-Wustl, Sara. 2023. “Teeth Track Gender Bias Back over 1,000 Years.” Futurity. March 16, 2023. https://www.futurity.org/gender-bias-archaeology-2890932-2/.
University of Seville. 2019. “The Neolithic Precedents of Gender Inequality.” Phys.org. June 10, 2019. https://phys.org/news/2019-06-neolithic-gender-inequality.html.
Pollen dating is a super interesting and effective way to help archaeologists date sites and learn more about the environment around the site. Palynologists, experts in pollen dating and analysis, can figure out a lot about the area of a site by using pollen that has been stored in the ground. They can do this because pollen is almost indestructible and can be preserved for thousands and even millions of years. When looking at pollen we can separate trends into pollen zones which can help us date areas. When we find pollen in sites, if we can identify which pollen zone they resemble we can get a general idea of the timer period.
This is an image of what pollen particles look like super zoomed in.
Furthermore, we can use radiocarbon dating and pollen dating to confidently date sites. However, this is not a foolproof method to learn all about a site. Pollen does not preserve well in dry climates and is susceptible to microbial damage. Therefore you need to have the right conditions to effectively use pollen dating and analysis.
Yet how effective is it to not only find particles that range from 10-1000 microns but also learn about a society of people who were alive thousands of years ago? One example I found of effective use of pollen dating was at Catalhoyuk. Catalhoyuk is a UNESCO World Heritage site in south-central Turkey. Catalhoyuk is a neolithic site that is especially important because it is believed to be one of the first examples of an urban setting. This was a city where up to 10,000 people lived and farmed.
Pollen dating and analysis were used at Catalhoyuk to figure out a lot about the surrounding environment and to help date the site. Pollen analysis found a very high percentage of Cerealia-type pollen, up to 70%. This tells us that a lot of agricultural grains were being grown around the site. This presence of pollen can lead us to believe that grains were a huge food source for the residents of Catalhoyuk. By looking at where the pollen was the archeologist could even pinpoint where they think the fields were and where the grains were processed. Along with radiocarbon dating, archeologists could tell that this specific grain processing location was only active for 300 years. Using pollen analysis and radiocarbon dating gives archeologists multiple tools to figure out dates and information about sites. Although pollen dating and analysis can not tell us everything about a site it can be another useful tool to learn more about farming environments and even the location of things like food processing. Paired with tools like radiocarbon dating it can also help put dates on sites and artifacts.
John Eastwood, Warren , and Neil Roberts. 2007. “Pollen Analysis at Çatalhöyük.” Research Gate. January 2007. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313718677_Pollen_analysis_at_Catalhoyuk.
Santiago-Marrero, Carlos G, Christina Tsoraki, Carla Lancelotti, and Marco Madella. 2021. “A Microbotanical and Microwear Perspective to Plant Processing Activities and Foodways at Neolithic Çatalhöyük.” PLOS ONE 16 (6): e0252312–12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252312.
Stroud, Elizabeth, Neil Roberts, and Hakan Yiğitbaşıoğlu. 2018. “Comparing Pollen and Archaeobotanical Data for Chalcolithic Cereal Agriculture at Çatalhöyük, Turkey.” Quaternary Science Reviews 202 (December): 4–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.11.012.
A mythical sense of linear progress illuminates human history, as the general public often views older civilizations as lesser and barbaric. However, the study of archeology provides insight into this falsehood, revealing how historic civilizations lived. Further inspection often reveals forgotten cultures as more cohesive and advanced than surface-level inspection would suggest. A recent example of this came in the form of a “fridge” that was unearthed by archaeologists at a Roman military camp over the course of the last year.
The “fridge” was discovered at the Novae Camp in Northern Bulgaria. This camp is an ancient Roman military camp that the 1st Italian Legion is heavily associated with. Archeologists studying the site believe that it was founded somewhere in the middle of the 1st Century AD. The camp is a little over 44 acres and due to the discovery and preservations of the Romans headquarters, barracks, baths, and hospital, it has become a hotspot for archeological discovery. It has also been discovered that the camp is surrounded by a settlement to its west and a necropolis that surrounds its eastern and southern borders.
Picture from the Novae Camp, part of the main headquarters
However, amid these historic discoveries came something that resembles a popular modern household appliance, a refrigerator. The Roman “refrigerator” was discovered inside of the Roman military barracks. It was a rectangular container made of ceramic plates built into the foundation of the barracks. This location combined with the stone foundation ensured the box was relatively well insulated. Furthermore, the sight had a complex aqueduct system constructed with lead and ceramic pipes. These pipes bordered the Roman “fridge” on one of its long rectangular sides. This construction and cooling system is what draws comparisons to modern refrigerators. Bulgarian temperatures are also below freezing for five months of the year, so archaeologists speculate that it is likely the ceramic box was packed with snow and ice for cooling purposes.
Finally, an interesting part of this discovery is that the ceramic box was not empty. It was full of ceramic pieces and many baked bone fragments, which archeologists speculate are likely remains from cooked food. There was also a bowl containing charcoal which is believed to be a form of insect repellent. This Roman “fridge” was particularly rare because the fridges often did not survive building reconstruction. Luckily, this one survived and will continue to provide modern archeologists a window into the past of ancient Roman military camp life.
Picture of the Roman “fridge” unearthed at the Novae Camp
Work Cited:
Altuntaş, Leman. “Archaeologists Discovered How Wine Was Cooled in Roman Legions on the Danube.” Arkeonews, 15 Sept. 2023, arkeonews.net/archaeologists-discovered-how-wine-was-cooled-in-roman-legions-on-the-danube/.
Falde, Nathan. “Archaeologists Unearth First Century Roman Refrigerator in Bulgaria.” Ancient Origins Reconstructing the Story of Humanity’s Past, Ancient Origins, 1 Oct. 2022, www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/novae-roman-refrigerator-0017341.
Pflughoeft, Aspen. “Ancient ‘Fridge’ — with Meat Still inside – Miami Herald.” Miami Herald, 11 Oct. 2022, www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/article267117666.html.
Machu Picchu, the iconic 15th-century Inca citadel perched high in the Andes of southern Peru, has always been shrouded in historical mystery. Recently, a study led by Yale archaeologist Richard Burger has unveiled an unexpected revelation: Machu Picchu is decades older than previously believed. This revelation was achieved through the application of absolute dating techniques, specifically radiocarbon dating methods, offering insights that challenge established historical narratives and underscore the crucial role of dating in archaeology.
Historical records had previously suggested that Machu Picchu (Figure 1) was constructed around A.D. 1440, during the reign of Inca Emperor Pachacuti. However, the findings of Burger’s team tell a different story. They employed accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS), a sophisticated form of radiocarbon dating, to examine human remains unearthed at the site during early 20th-century excavations. Essentially, by measuring the remaining carbon-14 in a sample and comparing it to stable carbon isotopes (Renfrew 2018), archaeologists can determine the age of organic materials (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Machu Picchu, located around 50 miles northwest of Cusco, Peru. Photograph by Eitan Abramovich.
The results of this scientific endeavor reveal a remarkable truth: Machu Picchu was occupied from approximately A.D. 1420 to A.D. 1530. This discovery extends the site’s age by at least 20 years, bringing into question established notions of Inca chronology. According to Burger, “The results suggest that the discussion of the development of the Inca empire based primarily on colonial records needs revision” (Cummings 2021).
Figure 2. Flow chart on radiocarbon dating: production and decay in our atmosphere. Chart by Australian National University.
In conclusion, Machu Picchu’s reevaluated age challenges preconceived notions and underscores the importance of dating methods in archaeology. These findings not only impact our understanding of Machu Picchu but also shed light on the broader context of Inca history. It implies that Inca Emperor Pachacuti began his conquests decades earlier than previously thought, signifying a shift in the timeline of Inca expansion. In essence, dating techniques in archaeology serve as the bedrock upon which our comprehension of the past is built. They allow us to peer through the veil of time and uncover the mysteries that have long eluded us, ultimately reshaping our perceptions of history. As we continue to refine our dating methods, we can look forward to even more revelations that will challenge our assumptions and broaden our understanding of the ancient world.
Reference List:
Cummings, Mike. 2021. “Machu Picchu Older than Expected, Study Reveals.” YaleNews, August 5, 2021.
Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. 2018. Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice. Fourth edition: 123-126. Thames & Hudson
Photo Sources:
Figure 1. Orson, Diane. December 15, 2010. “Yale Returns Machu Picchu Artifacts to Peru.” NPR.
Figure 2. “Research School of Earth Sciences.” Radiocarbon dating: background | ANU Research School of Earth Sciences. https://earthsciences.anu.edu.au/research/facilities/anu-radiocarbon-laboratory/radiocarbon-dating-background.
Dendrology, or the study of growth tree rings, is widely used to create chronological records to date artifacts. These rings tell us a life story about the tree, like season-long weather patterns or climate change. Developed by American astronomer A.E. Douglass in the early 1900s, dendrology has evolved to have two uses. It is used “as a successful means of calibrating or correcting radiocarbon uses and as an independent method of absolute dating in its own right” (Renfrew and Paul, 1996).
At first glance, the process may seem straightforward. Counting the rings on the stump of a tree gives the annual growth, like barcodes containing information about the entirety of the tree’s past. These rings, varying in width and character, give valuable insights to dendrologists about sunlight exposure, temperature fluctuations, and the availability of nourishment throughout a tree’s lifetime. Dendrologists can use this information to create a bigger picture of the regional climate. Often referred to as cross-dating, scientists are able to build a chronology from living trees, dead trees, and ancient wood that can date back hundreds or thousands of years.
A cottonwood tree stump near the Aztec Ruins National Monument Visitor Center (Nicolette Brown 2022).
Dendrologists studied the buildings of the Aztec Ruins to delve deeper into the way of life of the Pueblos who once lived there. They examined the outermost ring of the tree beams used to build structures like roofs. These outermost rings, representing the year the tree was cut, synchronize with the era when the wood was used for construction. By connecting the timeline of the cuts, dendrologists are able to gather more information about when the area was inhabited. Since beams were continually breaking when the Pueblos were living at the Aztec Ruins, people were constantly replacing the beams. As beams continuously broke and were replaced, dendrologists identified the final beam replacement to be 1269, marking the anticipated time the Pueblo people abandoned the Ruins.
The ring patterns give more information than solely when the Aztec Ruins were inhabited. Dendrologists are able to learn the seasons the ancestral Pueblo people harvested their wood. They found that “Harvesting actually took place during the early spring of 1119 AD, before most trees had begun to produce a layer that would correspond to the year 1119 AD (National Park Service).” The early spring harvest was strategically timed to avoid the flow of sap, ensuring the strength and durability of the support beams as trees with sap are less stable.
An archaeologist studying the wooden beams at Aztec Ruins (National Park Service 2022).
The width of the tree itself provides historical climate data. The tree stumps show that the ancestral Pueblo people have weathered many droughts, and the dendrologists were able to identify the time periods these droughts occurred. By understanding the timing of extreme weather patterns, dendrologists can map out when the Pueblo people migrated to other places to seek out a more abundant water source.
Often looked past, trees have the ability to be storytellers that give us a glimpse into the past. Because of dendrology, people are able to make more sense of the world, unlocking various narratives that we often see in textbooks today.
