Dendrochronology is the scientific method of dating events and understanding environmental changes through the study of tree rings. A subfield of dendrochronology is dendroclimatology which focuses specifically on climatic events, using these tree rings to understand past climates. Tree rings can be very useful in studying big-picture patterns and analysis. If a year is particularly dry the tree’s rings will show up thinner, and on wetter years a tree’s rings are thicker creating a yearly outline of the climate centuries back. Dendrochronology works well in more arid climates, where the trees’ ring growth is more sensitive to environmental changes than trees in humid tropical areas. In the Arctic, and in other countries at high altitudes the size of tree rings correlates not with moisture but with temperature. There trees have thinner rings with the cold and thicker rings with warmth.

The Western U.S. and areas of the Americas, specifically Chile, have a very arid climate which has helped dendroclimatologists understand the climate patterns of this area. There are also some very old trees in the California area which helps to date back centuries. There have been many studies on the trees in these areas as the process works well with the climate and is more clear than in other places. Studies from the Western U.S. have shown a pattern of severe droughts happening about once a century, although only a few are officially classified as megadroughts. Studies on tree stumps underwater have also lined up with the pattern of severe drought. These stumps showed a megadrought that lasted for decades, allowing these trees to grow in streams and lakes. This severe drought was made significantly worse by the effect of humans on the climate. In the Americas, specifically Chile dendroclimatologists discovered a similar pattern to that of the Western U.S. There has been a once-a-century megadrought in the Americas throughout history. These are often preceded by a warm North Atlantic Ocean, rising global temperatures, and a change in the relationship between La Nina and El Nino. With the changes in climate change scientists are concerned that these droughts will become significantly worse. In the late 1500s, there was an incredibly severe megadrought that lasted decades, and today looking at the charts we are reaching similar levels of drought, which is increased by human activity.

Both the studies in the Americas and in the Western U.S. show that human activity accounts for roughly 46% of the increased severity of the drought. Dendroclimatology can show us the patterns in climate we should be prepared for but can also showcase how human activity worsens and exaggerates natural patterns.

Further Research:

https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/622755

https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2022/08/how-climate-change-spurs-megadroughts/

https://www.globalwaterforum.org/2021/06/08/we-found-a-secret-history-of-megadroughts-written-in-tree-rings-the-wheatbelts-future-may-be-drier-than-we-thought/

References:

Chang, Alvin. “What Tree Rings Reveal about America’s Megadrought – A Visual Guide.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, www.theguardian.com/us-news/ng-interactive/2021/jun/17/tree-rings-america-megadrought-visual. Accessed 17 Sept. 2023.

Nash, Stephen E. “Tree Rings Are Evidence of the Megadrought-and Our Doom.” SAPIENS, 30 Jan. 2023, www.sapiens.org/archaeology/tree-rings-are-evidence-of-the-megadrought-and-our-doom/.

Voosen, Paul. “A Warning from Ancient Tree Rings: The Americas Are Prone to … – AAAS.” Science, 2019, www.science.org/content/article/warning-ancient-tree-rings-americas-are-prone-catastrophic-simultaneous-droughts.

Margo Gramiak

Most people are familiar with the concept that in a cross section of a tree, one ring is equivalent to one year of the tree’s life. What most people don’t know is how much more each tree ring can tell us. 

Beyond just age, each individual tree ring holds knowledge of past climate. Because one year is represented by one ring, the condition of each ring can indicate what the climate was like at the specific time of its formation (Neural Academy 2018). Exploring this concept is a form of dendrochronology, which directly applies to paleoclimatology, the study of past climates (Neural Academy 2018). Our climate records only go back 150 years, and the practice of dendrochronology allows us to fill in gaps prior to what’s recorded (Neural Academy 2018). From an archeological standpoint, this is a great tool to better understand the past weather conditions, and to accurately date wooden structures and artifacts. 

Each year, a tree grows a new cambium layer (Stoller-Conrad 2017). The growth rate of this layer depends on several factors. Seasonal progression can be determined, as an increase in cell wall thickness, and a decrease in cell size is evident as the seasons advance (Neural Academy 2018). This is based on water availability, temperature, and how these factors fluctuate. Other changes in climate can also be identified based on markings found in the layers. For example, scarring from forest fires is evident in cross-sectioning (Figure 1) (Stoller-Conrad 2017).

Ideal climate leads to higher growth rates (Neural Academy 2018). This is key in how historical atmospheric conditions can be determined. Yearly conditions are reflected in the size of tree rings (Figure 1) (Neural Academy 2018). Ideal conditions produce wider rings, and vice versa. Overlapping and comparing data from large groups of trees from the same area allows us to form a complete record of the climate (Alpecole 2011). This is referred to as the cross dating method (Figure 2). As more and more samples from different time periods and places are collected, the database broadens, and the climate timeline continues to become more accurate and extensive (Alpecole 2011).

Dendrochronology is commonly utilized in New York City’s historic districts, as wood was significant in the construction of the original parts of the city (Duncombe 2023). Wood found in these buildings holds important climate knowledge. For this reason, preservation and sampling of these historic buildings is crucial. 

One example is the case of sample collection at a historic site in Manhattan, Terminal Warehouse, in 2019 (Figure 3) (Duncombe 2023).

Based on collected samples, researchers were able to identify that the wood collected was longleaf pine (Duncombe 2023). They measured the rings, recorded their widths (Duncombe 2023), and compared the recorded sequence of numbers to others in the database. It was discovered that most of the timbers found in Terminal Warehouse were harvested in the late 1800s, and were likely from western and central Georgia, as well as eastern Alabama (Duncombe 2023). It was also concluded that they were likely grown on dry, mountainous slopes. Researchers went even deeper using additional historical context, and concluded that the majority of the lumber was most likely from Sample Lumber Company, in Hollins, Alabama (Duncombe 2023). From here, it was transported to a port in Savannah, Georgia by railroad, before making its way up the Hudson River on a schooner (Duncombe 2023).

This is just one of many examples of the use of dendrochronology in an archaeological context. The process, though seemingly so simple, is incredibly impressive and important. It’s exciting to consider what future research and dendrochronology, specifically tree ring dating, could reveal.

Additional Resources

More about general dendrochronology: https://www.environmentalscience.org/dendrochronology-tree-rings-tell-us

More about dendrochronology in New York City:  https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/timber-salvaged-from-new-york-city-buildings-reveals-ancient-climate

Works Cited

Alpecole, “Dendrochronology,” Geo.org. August 29, 2011. https://www.geo.uzh.ch/microsite/alpecole/static/course/lessons/28/28c.htm

Duncombe, Jenessa, “Finding Climate History in the Rafters of New York City Buildings,” EOS.org. February 22, 2023. https://eos.org/features/finding-climate-history-in-the-rafters-of-new-york-city-buildings 

Neural Academy. “Dendrochronology (Tree Ring Dating),” 3:24. May 19, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Vfg4GieRTc

Stoller-Conrad, “Tree rings provide snapshots of Earth’s past climate,” Climate.nasa.gov. January 25, 2017. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2540/tree-rings-provide-snapshots-of-earths-past-climate/

Terminal Warehouse Staff, “Terminal Warehouse,” Terminalwarehouse.nyc. July 9, 2024. https://terminalwarehouse.nyc/

An artifact found in northern Israel decades ago has undergone recent lab research to unveil new information about early human development in the Far East (region of modern day Eastern Europe and Middle East). A village in the Hula Valley was found with a collection of over one thousand bird bones, seven of which contained markings and holes in them. Using modern dating and analyzing techniques, these bones were confirmed to be sound instruments from Natufian Culture. The Natufians were a prehistoric human society that lived in the Levant which is an area that spans over modern Israel, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq. These people are estimated to have lived here between 13000 BCE and 9000 BCE, during a period in human history when the transitioning from a nomadic lifestyle to cultivating crops began. 

These sound instruments are thought to be the first found in the Far East, giving us more understanding of what life was like for the Natufians during such an important episode of human history. In class this week we discussed dating and analyzing techniques that archeologists use to gain more knowledge from artifacts and sites. Previous information about the Natufians includes that they are a society from the Stone Age culture, which can be found through their creation and use of stone tools. Seriation was used here to be able to place the time that this society took place. By understanding that they used stone tools, they are able to know that the Natufians were older than any society in the Bronze or Iron ages. Using micro-CT scans of the bird bones, the perforations could be linked to be Natufian as the holes in the bone could be confirmed as being made with stone tools. The holes were also spaced on intervals, backing the idea that the instrument was made purposefully. Further evidence that the bird bones were an instrument can be found by looking at the artifact through a microscope, as signs of wear from holding the instrument could be seen.  

These new technologies and data methods are able to provide us with an extensive amount of information about ancient societies. By creating a modern replica of the bone instrument, the sounds that would have been produced from it can be heard. The result is a sharp, high-pitched tone, which leads scientists to hypothesize that while it could still be used for musical purposes, it may have been used to communicate with one another, as a tool while hunting, or as a way to communicate with birds. 

Regardless of what the actual purpose of the instrument was, new analysis techniques show us that we can continue to broaden our understanding of ancient societies during a time in history of such importance.

Extra Links

New York Times article about the instruments: https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/28/science/archaeology-birds-flute.html

Information about Natufian Culture:

https://private-tours-in-israel.com/natufian-culture/

Seriation has been an archaeological tool since the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Seriation is known as a technique used to arrange several artifacts, sites, and/or events in a chronological sequence such that each discovery has its own timeline and identity. It is also useful to archaeologists in depicting the order of their discoveries for informational and historical use. The first and most notable person to utilize this tool was Sir Williams Flinders-Petrie. Upon discovery of several cemetery sites along the Nile River, he found that there was no efficient way to chronologically order the sites. Eventually, he discovered a number of pottery artifacts across the cemeteries. By identifying the different styles of each artifact as they were discovered, he found that the change in style was evolutionary, just as a ford automobile has had stylistic changes since the Model A in 1903. Petrie was able to revolutionize archaeology. Instead of characterizing artifacts by their design, such as “Egyptian pots”, he was able to consistently identify what period in history an artifact had come from and what those findings revealed about other artifacts buried with it or around it (Hirst 2020).

Seriation works because the styles of items will always evolve over time. Thus, the original technique creates an effective, yet tedious way of matching an artifact to its time period. The most conventional method of seriation involves taking samples of a dig site or junkyard and picking apart the different artifacts in the pile until what is being searched for is found in its numerous styles. This information (based on the style of each artifact and at what site it was found in) is then graphed by hand.

Present day seriation techniques are much more technological. Computers run matrices to depict this same data much faster, just as any analytical data technique has evolved to incorporate computers and coding. The computers generate bar graphs that show the different styles of a specific artifact that are found at different sites. A more well-known technique that has almost replaced the original methods of seriation is radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon dating implements the organic material of an artifact instead of only dating an item based on the way it looks compared to others. Countless other dating techniques implement pieces of the methods used for seriation such as stratigraphy, typology, and even DNA analysis. Seriation is an integral part of archaeologists’ discovery procedures and has assisted archaeologists in learning more and more about human behavior and connecting the past to the present.

References:

Brauer, George. June, 2006. “An Exercise in Seriation Dating.” Office of Social Studies Baltimore County Public Schools, Towson, Maryland. https://documents.saa.org/container/docs/default-source/doc-teachingarchaeology/seriation_lesson.pdf?sfvrsn=bdae50c0_6#:~:text=This%20method%20of%20assigning%20dates,and%20then%20trails%20off%2C%20sometimes

Hirst, Kris. Aug. 27, 2020. “An Introduction to Seriation.” ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/seriation-scientific-dating-before-radiocarbon-170607

Other links for interest:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vI6eKWK74E

https://www.digitwithraven.com/single-post/seriation

Palynology, also known as pollen dating is an archaeological technique involving the study of of pollen grains preserved in sedimentary layers. Plants produce pollen grains, which are released into the environment and eventually settle in sediment, bogs, or lake beds. Over time, the grains become buried and preserved. By analyzing the abundance of pollen grains within sediment, archaologists can determine the types of vegetation that existed in an area during specific times. This information allows archaeologists to reconstruct ancient landscapes and understand human settlement patterns in different areas (ScARF 2020).

Pollen analysis is “arguably the most successful, of the biological techniques used in reconstructing past environments” (ScARF 2020). Pollen dating can provide insights into ecological shifts that impacted ancient societies. A decrease in the diversity of species or the presence of certain indicator species can suggest periods environmental stress, such as drought. Understanding past environmental conditions is crucial to understand the challenges faced by ancient civilizations. (Gordon 2021). 

Pollen cannot be well preserved with air present, “but in anaerobic conditions such as a peat bog, pollen is relatively well preserved” (Alphey 2018). Pollen can “also become fossilized in arid conditions if the soil is acidic or cool” (Science Encyclopedia). 

Pollen dating is often used to establish relative chronologies. When “polleniferous material is stratified and can be securely dated, it can be used to build up a picture of how individual taxa and plant communities have changed over time” (ScARF 2020). For instance, an increase or decrease in the abundance of pollen from a particular species, such as crops for livestock grazing, can indicate agricultural activity. This allows archaologists to identify a relative date for the onset of human occupation or other particular events within a sight. 

Beyond establishing relative chronologies, pollen dating can complement other dating techniques. Pollen grains are “highly suitable for radiocarbon dating” (Fletcher 2018). Pollen walls are made of sporopollenin, a biopolymer that “is derived from atmospheric CO2 through photosynthesis” (Fletcher 2018). Pollens grains can therefore indicate the ratios of various carbon isotopes in the atmosphere during particular time periods, allowing scientists to better understand the environment at the time. Pollen grains also have morphological characteristics that allow them to be “identified to different taxonomic groups […] providing valuable contextual information for the dated sample” (Fletcher 2018). 

When combined with radiocarbon dates, pollen analysis can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the environmental context of an archaeological site. This helps archaeologists construct more accurate timelines of past human activity. In addition, pollen dating can provide “relative dates beyond the limits of radiocarbon (40,000 years), and can be used in some places where radiocarbon dates are unobtainable” (Science Encyclopedia).

Pollen dating provides a window into the past that allows researchers to paint a more detailed and accurate picture of human history and the environment in which our ancestors lived. Pollen dating is a testament to the interdisciplinary nature of archaeology, as tiny pollen grains can play a pivotal role in yielding vast insights into our past. 

Further Reading

Pollen diagram implications in Peloponnese, Greece

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/epdf/10.1177/095968369300300407

Pollen grains found on the Shroud of Turin

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/arcm.12269

Works Cited

Alphey, R. (2018, September 11). A brief glimpse of the microscopic world of pollen. Pollen analysis. https://www.plymarchsoc.org.uk/pollenanalysis1.html

Fletcher, W. (2018, Dec 5). Dating Pollen. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. https://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/83246184/9781119188230.saseas0156.pdf

Forster, E. (2015, September 18). Pollen analysis. Brockhampton Summer of Archaeology. https://summerofarchaeology.wordpress.com/2015/09/18/pollen-analysis/

Gordon, J. (2021, July 6). Pollen Analysis: What is it? and why is it useful?. University of York. https://www.york.ac.uk/anthropocene-biodiversity/news/biodiversification-news/202021/pollen-analysis/

Lu, J., Zhang, P., Dal Corso, J., Yang, M., Wignall, P. B., Greene, S. E., Shao, L., Lyu, D., & Hilton, J. (2021, September 27). Volcanically driven lacustrine ecosystem changes during the Carnian Pluvial Episode (Late Triassic). pnas.org. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2109895118

ScARF. (2020, March 19). Pollen analysis. The Scottish Archaeological Research Framework. https://scarf.scot/thematic/scarf-science-panel-report/4-people-and-the-environment/4-6-pollen-analysis/

Science Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Dating techniques – pollen dating (palynology). Pollen Dating (palynology) – Time, Fluorine, Dates, and Remains – JRank Articles. https://science.jrank.org/pages/1949/Dating-Techniques-Pollen-dating-palynology.html

Archaeologists used seriation techniques to analyze and chronologically order styles of gravestones in New England Puritan societies. Deetz and Dethlefsen, two archaeologists in the 1900s, organized the markers into three main groups of designs and styles: the Death’s Head or Winged Skull, the Cherub, and the Urn and Willow (Figure 1) (Deetz and Dethlefsen 1967). One important note is the use of sedimentary brown sandstone, as opposed to white marble, during the colonial period, providing well-preserved gravestones for archaeologists to observe and analyze.

Gravestones are unique in their information about the person who died, including dates, professions, family members, and names. Gravestones are, therefore, artifacts that can be analyzed, as in this study, by their styles chronologically, but also the cultural changes that are represented. Deetz and Dethlefsen, along with other historians, analyzed the cultural changes during the time to hypothesize the reason for the evolutions in the styles of gravestones. For example, one conclusion was that the shift from the death’s head (Figure 2) tombstones to the winged cherub was because of a decline in orthodox puritanism. In addition, some cherub-style gravestones include the phrase “In Memory Of..” emphasizing the memorial of the individual rather than a set of religious beliefs (Windsor).

The changes in gravestones show shifts in culture and progressions in religion over time. Cherubs were engraved into the gravestones as an effort to resurrect, but as Puritans no longer questioned their salvation, the purpose and style of gravestones shifted as well. Instead, the urn and willow symbolize the grief of the lost loved one.

Since Deetz and Dethlefsen’s study and use of seriation to chronologize gravestone styles in New England Puritan societies, other archaeologists have examined gravestones in other parts of the United States, such as New York where there was more religious and ethnic diversity. Seriation techniques were again used to organize gravestone styles that were similar to each other to create a timeline of symbols used. One of the oldest cemeteries in New York City, Shearith Israel, has headstones from the late 1600s to the early 1800s, most of which lack symbols that were observed in New England (Pickman 2006). However, some similarities exist to the headstone shapes used in Christian society, such as the “three-lobed shape” that symbolizes a bed frame and the final rest associated with death.

Gravestones are essential and valuable artifacts to accompany the analysis of religious and cultural evolution changes. These artifacts contain written evidence and data to characterize symbols and shapes using seriation techniques, which can then be used to hypothesize and draw other conclusions about the developments of society at the time.

Other Links:

https://ivypanda.com/essays/deaths-head-cherub-urn-and-willow-the-views-of-religion-and-death-in-1720-1820/

https://www.nytimes.com/1977/03/06/archives/new-jersey-opinion-stories-told-in-stone-gravestones-as-folk-art.html

Citations:

“Colonial New York Gravestones.” Archaeology Magazine Online Features. Accessed September 17, 2023.. https://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/nycolonial/graves.html.

“Deaths’ Head, Cherubs, and Urns: Gravestone Iconography in New England.” New England Folklore. Accessed September 17, 2023. http://newenglandfolklore.blogspot.com/2018/09/deaths-head-cherubs-and-urns-gravestone.htm.

“Gravestones – Puritanism.” Revolutionary Windsor: The Windsor Historical Society. Accessed September 17, 2023. https://sites.google.com/a/windsorct.org/revolutionary_windsor/home/gravestones-puritanism.

“Plymouth Colony Gravestone Symbolism.” Historical Archaeology at the University of Illinois. Accessed September 17, 2023. http://www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/deathshead.html.

On the 26th of April, 1986, the Chernobyl Nuclear power plant in Pripyat, Ukraine exploded. The explosion released massive amounts of radiation into surrounding areas, which forced thousands of city residents to immediately evacuate. According to the United Nations, “…only 50 deaths can be directly attributed to the disaster…,” however “… they predicted a further 4,000 might eventually die as a result of the radiation exposure” from Chernobyl ( 2019). Pripyat has been studied extensively by radiation scientists but will become especially compelling for archaeologists in the future for two main reasons. 

First, nuclear reactors use a specific radioactive isotope, Uranium-235, to produce energy. Like all elements, U-235 has a fixed half-life, or the amount of time an element takes to lose half of its radioactive atoms. Scientists use half-lives to determine the degree a radioactive element has decayed, which reveals the element’s age. U-235’s half-life is 700 million years, meaning future archaeologists will be able to determine the decay of the reactor core’s Uranium-235, therefore the era in which Chernobyl exploded. 

Secondly, contrary to many archaeological sites, much of Pripyat will be perfectly preserved for future archaeologists. Both the power plant and city are heavily secured by the Ukrainian government due to the dangers of radiation. Since the evacuation of the city in 1986, citizens have been banned from radioactive areas (the power plant, cemetery, etc.)  that will not be safe for thousands of years. Archaeological sites are often damaged or lost due to human activities such as construction or farming. If left undisturbed by the invading Russian forces, Pripyat will likely only be affected by natural disasters and weathering. Future archaeologists will have the Uranium half-life data from the reactor and the city of Pripyat at their disposal to study human activity during the 20th century. 

Archaeology relies on context to generate conclusions on culture. Artifacts are meaningless to archaeologists if they can not be directly related to a specific culture or era. Chernobyl provides context in several ways. Radioactive clocks allow scientists to determine the era in which the city existed. Determining when the city existed provides historical insight into social norms, technology, international affairs, etc. Secondly, the perfectly preserved city will be a time capsule into the 20th century, containing a plethora of first-hand accounts. Chernobyl was a tragedy that resulted in the loss of many human lives. Nevertheless, the site will become incredibly important for archaeologists thousands of years in the future. 

References:

Gray, Richard. “The True Toll of the Chernobyl Disaster.” Www.bbc.com, 26 July 2019, www.bbc.com/future/article/20190725-will-we-ever-know-chernobyls-true-death-toll#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20official%2C%20internationally. Accessed 17 Sept. 2023.

Photos: 

Figure 1. Bennett, Matt. “2 Things We Believe: Chernobyl Was Catastrophic, and We Need Nuclear Power More than Ever.” USA TODAY, USA TODAY, 17 June 2019, www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2019/06/17/hbo-chernobyl-tragic-nuclear-power-safe-clean-vital-column/1409096001/.

Figure 2. Gordon, Elizabeth. “5.7: Calculating Half-Life.” Chemistry LibreTexts, 8 July 2017, chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Furman_University/CHM101%3A_Chemistry_and_Global_Awareness_%28Gordon%29/05%3A_Basics_of_Nuclear_Science/5.07%3A_Calculating_Half-Life.

Additional Information:

HBO’s show and the debate on nuclear energy after Chernobyl- https://www.dandc.eu/en/article/miniseries-chernobyl-revolves-around-worst-nuclear-accident-world

The financial/environmental effects of the incident- https://www.thecollector.com/chernobyl-disaster-nuclear-power-plant-lasting-effects/

When I visited the Tongore Cemetery, I observed a grave for a woman. The writing was legible and extremely clear. The gravestone didn’t list her under her own name – she was listed as “Wife of,” remembered only for her husband instead of herself, her identity erased. 

This experience inspired me to look more closely at the intersection of feminism and archaeology, specifically in understanding gender. Our understanding of gender in the past significantly informs our understanding of gender and gender inequality in the present. Archaeological research and interdisciplinary approaches to this research combine to illuminate the complexities of gender in ancient societies. These insights challenge traditional narratives of gender and offer valuable teachings for addressing gender disparities in the present.

Archaeological investigations and studies have revealed the historical roots of gender roles that feed into modern inequalities. Such research highlights that “gender-equal norms passed down from one generation to the next can persist even if institutions or structures incentivize inequality, and vice versa” (Savat-Wustl, 2023). Bias in archaeological interpretations has also marginalized women’s contributions, obscuring their roles in shaping past societies. For example, if a body was discovered with weapons and armor, the body was presumed to be male; if a body was discovered with jewelry and pottery, the body was presumed to be female (Ghodsee, 2023). If weapons are found buried with a woman, they are interpreted as “symbolic” instead of being for actual use, thus erasing the identity and contributions of the female warrior (Davis-Kimball, n.d.). This method of sexing bodies enforces the gender binary and gendered stereotypes, also ignoring the contributions women made to ancient societies.

In acknowledging and rectifying these biases, we gain a more accurate understanding of the roles women played in these cultures, and in learning about our past, we learn about our present and future. These interpretations also reshape and redefine how gender was accepted and expressed in ancient societies. The discovery of a potentially non-binary Viking individual challenges rigid binary notions of gender that persist today (Henley, 2021). This discovery emphasizes the fluidity of gender identity in the past, challenging the notion that ancient societies were also limited by the gender binary.

Another critical archaeological insight is the rise of gender inequality during the Neolithic period. Research on this subject suggests that gender disparities began to appear around 8,000 years ago (University of Seville, 2019; Lewis, 2019). Societies transitioned from nomadic hunter-gathering to settled agriculture, creating set roles within each community. These roles steadily became gendered, as cave paintings also started to associate men with violence. Graves and excavated evidence support this notion, as male remains were often found with projectile wounds. 

Understanding these specific roots of gender inequality can inform current efforts to dismantle patriarchal structures and hegemonic norms. Similarly, genetic evidence has been used to trace the impact of gender inequality on ancient populations (Kousta, 2017). This research demonstrates how genetic patterns can reflect past social structures and gender-based divisions, specifically those concerning labor. Such insights help us recognize the enduring consequences of gender inequality on human populations; again, this research can help in educating our society on how to reject patriarchy.

The intersection of archaeology and feminism has played a pivotal role in reshaping our understanding of gender. Feminist gender archaeology offers a perspective that critically examines how gender dynamics influenced (and continue to influence) archaeological interpretations. This approach underscores the importance of acknowledging and addressing gender biases in research, ultimately enhancing our understanding of the past. Explicitly feminist archaeology pushes further, highlighting the potential of archaeology to challenge and deconstruct patriarchal norms. It encourages the inclusion of marginalized voices and perspectives in archaeological research, fostering a more inclusive and equitable discipline, while also maintaining the hope that archaeological interpretation might become less biased. 

Further Reading:

https://womeninarchaeology.com/2017/03/16/what-is-feminist-gender-archaeology-a-nutshell-perspective/

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/jan/16/archaeology-sexual-revolution-bones-sex-dna-birka-lovers

References:

Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. n.d. “Engendering the Past: Practices and Potentials of an Explicitly Feminist Archaeology | Barnard College.” Barnard.edu. Accessed September 17, 2023. https://barnard.edu/engendering-past-practices-and-potentials-explicitly-feminist-archaeology.

Ghodsee, Kristen. 2023. “Gender Oppression Isn’t Inherent to Human Nature.” Jacobin.com. June 22, 2023. https://jacobin.com/2023/06/sexism-patriarchy-gender-history-archeology-feminism.

Henley, Jon. 2021. “1,000-Year-Old Remains in Finland May Be Non-Binary Iron Age Leader.” The Guardian. August 9, 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/aug/09/1000-year-old-remains-in-finland-may-be-non-binary-viking-researchers-say.

Kousta, Stavroula. 2017. “Archaeology: Origin of Gender Inequalities.” Nature Human Behaviour 1 (3). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0059.

Lewis, Dyani. 2019. “Gender Inequality Arose 8000 Years Ago.” Cosmosmagazine.com. June 19, 2019. https://cosmosmagazine.com/history/gender-inequality-arose-8000-years-ago/.

López-Montalvo, Esther. 2015. “Violence in Neolithic Iberia: New Readings of Levantine Rock Art.” Antiquity 89 (344): 309–27. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2014.12.

Savat-Wustl, Sara. 2023. “Teeth Track Gender Bias Back over 1,000 Years.” Futurity. March 16, 2023. https://www.futurity.org/gender-bias-archaeology-2890932-2/.

University of Seville. 2019. “The Neolithic Precedents of Gender Inequality.” Phys.org. June 10, 2019. https://phys.org/news/2019-06-neolithic-gender-inequality.html.

Pollen dating is a super interesting and effective way to help archaeologists date sites and learn more about the environment around the site. Palynologists, experts in pollen dating and analysis, can figure out a lot about the area of a site by using pollen that has been stored in the ground. They can do this because pollen is almost indestructible and can be preserved for thousands and even millions of years. When looking at pollen we can separate trends into pollen zones which can help us date areas. When we find pollen in sites, if we can identify which pollen zone they resemble we can get a general idea of the timer period.

Yet how effective is it to not only find particles that range from 10-1000 microns but also learn about a society of people who were alive thousands of years ago? One example I found of effective use of pollen dating was at Catalhoyuk. Catalhoyuk is a UNESCO World Heritage site in south-central Turkey. Catalhoyuk is a neolithic site that is especially important because it is believed to be one of the first examples of an urban setting. This was a city where up to 10,000 people lived and farmed. 

Pollen dating and analysis were used at Catalhoyuk to figure out a lot about the surrounding environment and to help date the site. Pollen analysis found a very high percentage of Cerealia-type pollen, up to 70%. This tells us that a lot of agricultural grains were being grown around the site. This presence of pollen can lead us to believe that grains were a huge food source for the residents of Catalhoyuk. By looking at where the pollen was the archeologist could even pinpoint where they think the fields were and where the grains were processed. Along with radiocarbon dating, archeologists could tell that this specific grain processing location was only active for 300 years. Using pollen analysis and radiocarbon dating gives archeologists multiple tools to figure out dates and information about sites. Although pollen dating and analysis can not tell us everything about a site it can be another useful tool to learn more about farming environments and even the location of things like food processing. Paired with tools like radiocarbon dating it can also help put dates on sites and artifacts.

Further Reading

more info about the Catalhoyuk site

https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1405/#:~:text=%C3%87atalh%C3%B6y%C3%BCk%20provides%20important%20evidence%20of,roof%20access%20into%20the%20buildings.

More info on the Catalhoyuk site

https://www.catalhoyuk.com/archive_reports/1994/ar94_07.html

Pollen analysis info

https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-4411-3_192

References

John Eastwood, Warren , and Neil Roberts. 2007. “Pollen Analysis at Çatalhöyük.” Research Gate. January 2007. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313718677_Pollen_analysis_at_Catalhoyuk.

Santiago-Marrero, Carlos G, Christina Tsoraki, Carla Lancelotti, and Marco Madella. 2021. “A Microbotanical and Microwear Perspective to Plant Processing Activities and Foodways at Neolithic Çatalhöyük.” PLOS ONE 16 (6): e0252312–12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0252312.

Stroud, Elizabeth, Neil Roberts, and Hakan Yiğitbaşıoğlu. 2018. “Comparing Pollen and Archaeobotanical Data for Chalcolithic Cereal Agriculture at Çatalhöyük, Turkey.” Quaternary Science Reviews 202 (December): 4–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.11.012.

A mythical sense of linear progress illuminates human history, as the general public often views older civilizations as lesser and barbaric. However, the study of archeology provides insight into this falsehood, revealing how historic civilizations lived. Further inspection often reveals forgotten cultures as more cohesive and advanced than surface-level inspection would suggest. A recent example of this came in the form of a “fridge” that was unearthed by archaeologists at a Roman military camp over the course of the last year.

The “fridge” was discovered at the Novae Camp in Northern Bulgaria. This camp is an ancient Roman military camp that the 1st Italian Legion is heavily associated with. Archeologists studying the site believe that it was founded somewhere in the middle of the 1st Century AD. The camp is a little over 44 acres and due to the discovery and preservations of the Romans headquarters, barracks, baths, and hospital, it has become a hotspot for archeological discovery. It has also been discovered that the camp is surrounded by a settlement to its west and a necropolis that surrounds its eastern and southern borders.

However, amid these historic discoveries came something that resembles a popular modern household appliance, a refrigerator. The Roman “refrigerator” was discovered inside of the Roman military barracks. It was a rectangular container made of ceramic plates built into the foundation of the barracks. This location combined with the stone foundation ensured the box was relatively well insulated. Furthermore, the sight had a complex aqueduct system constructed with lead and ceramic pipes. These pipes bordered the Roman “fridge” on one of its long rectangular sides. This construction and cooling system is what draws comparisons to modern refrigerators. Bulgarian temperatures are also below freezing for five months of the year, so archaeologists speculate that it is likely the ceramic box was packed with snow and ice for cooling purposes.

Finally, an interesting part of this discovery is that the ceramic box was not empty. It was full of ceramic pieces and many baked bone fragments, which archeologists speculate are likely remains from cooked food. There was also a bowl containing charcoal which is believed to be a form of insect repellent. This Roman “fridge” was particularly rare because the fridges often did not survive building reconstruction. Luckily, this one survived and will continue to provide modern archeologists a window into the past of ancient Roman military camp life.

Work Cited:

Altuntaş, Leman. “Archaeologists Discovered How Wine Was Cooled in Roman Legions on the Danube.” Arkeonews, 15 Sept. 2023, arkeonews.net/archaeologists-discovered-how-wine-was-cooled-in-roman-legions-on-the-danube/.

Falde, Nathan. “Archaeologists Unearth First Century Roman Refrigerator in Bulgaria.” Ancient Origins Reconstructing the Story of Humanity’s Past, Ancient Origins, 1 Oct. 2022, www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/novae-roman-refrigerator-0017341.

Pflughoeft, Aspen. “Ancient ‘Fridge’ — with Meat Still inside – Miami Herald.” Miami Herald, 11 Oct. 2022, www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/article267117666.html.

Extra Links:

https://www.heritagedaily.com/2023/09/roman-fridge-found-at-novae/148589

https://imperiumromanum.pl/en/discoveries/scientists-trying-to-recreate-roman-refrigerator/

https://arkeonews.net/an-ancient-fridge-have-uncovered-at-the-roman-legionary-fortress-of-novae-bulgaria/