Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument constructed from large, vertically oriented rocks. The megaliths are positioned in a pair of concentric circles, two horseshoes within, and an altar stone at the center. Construction began in around 3000 BCE and a second round began around 500 years later (Pearson 2022). For years scientists, archaeologists, and artists have debated how and why it was constructed, their theories ever changing (Pitts 2022). To this day, many people travel to Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England to visit the site and ask their own questions about its long and often debated history (History Staff 2013).

Figure 1. Stonehenge at dawn. Photograph taken by National Geographic photographer.

The reason for Stonehenge’s construction is widely debated. In the 17th and 18th century, archaeologists suspected that the site had been constructed by the ancient Celtics, the Druids (History Staff 2013). However later technology proved it impossible due to the fact that the Druids arose around 2,000 years after the initial construction  (History Staff 2013). An 18th century scholar hypothesized that it could be a sort of calendar, as the sun on the summer solstice directly hits the entrance to the monument (History Staff 2013). Other hypotheses have included that it was an ancient place of healing, while others believed it was the center of bronze-age chiefdoms (Pearson 2022). In recent digs, archaeologists have discovered hundreds of human remains that  span nearly 1000 years  (History Staff 2013). From this, intellectuals have identified Stonehenge as likely both a site for ceremonial customs and burials (History Staff 2013). In 2010, a second stone circle was discovered in a similar orientation which led scholars to suspect that Stonehenge might have represented a larger-spread ritual (History Staff 2013).

Figure 2. Artistic depiction of Stonehenge at its completion versus today. Retrieved from eatandtravelwithus.

There were 2 main type of stones located at Stonehenge: Bluestones and sarsens (Pitts 2022).

The so-called bluestones form the inner horseshow and inner circle at Stonehenge (Pitts 2022). It’s estimated that those stones formed the entirety of the monument for about 500 years before the larger stones arrived (Pitts 2022). Although it’s name suggests an obvious blue color, the stones really only had a blue tint that was more prominent when wet or freshly cut (English Heritage). Unlike the later stones, these stones likely had a long journey to the site; some traveled almost 250 miles (English Heritage). These stones ranged from 2-5 tons each, so were no small feat to transport (Pitts 2022). A few of these bluestones also likely stood in other henges across England prior to their placement at Stonehenge (English Heritage). At Stonehenge itself, archaeologists have found evidence that the current position is at least the second configuration the bluestones have had since their arrival (English Heritage).

Figure 3. Example of the bluestone at Stonehenge. Retrieved from Stonehenge Stone Circle UK.

The larger stones in the outer ring and second horseshoe of the monument are the sarsens (Pitts 2022). Based on core research done by scientists, the majority of these stones seem to have come from about 20 miles from the site (Pitts 2022). These stones are much larger than the bluestones and weigh 20 or more tons each. The transportation of these stones would have been a massive undertaking (Pitts 2022). Unlike the bluestones, the sarsens are not in their natural states (Pitts 2022). Instead, they have been carefully carved nearby and fit together on site (Pitts 2022). Because of the tremendous size of the sarsens, there has been much speculation about how they were placed. Many theorized that they did so with ropes, however Pitts points out that because of the close proximity of the stones there would likely not have had room to do this (Pitts 2022). Instead, they likely rocked to stone back and forth while building a wood pile underneath to raise it.

Figure 4. Artist’s depiction of how the stones could’ve been raised. This depiction goes against what Pitts hypothesized. Either way, the process would’ve been extremely time consuming and often dangerous. (English Heritage)

Although Stonehenge is still an impressive monument to visit, it is by no means untouched (Pitts 2022). Over the years many of the stones have been carved up and taken elsewhere (Pearson 2022). Also, by the beginning of the 20th century, 5 stones had fallen and more teetered. In recognition of the importance of this monument there was restoration work done to keep the megaliths erect (Pitts 2022). However, the digging required destroyed large portions of the archaeological evidence that lay beneath the stones (Pitts 2022).

Although built thousands of years before the present, the secrets of Stonehenge continue to be studied and likely will be for many decades to come.

Further Readings

Human teeth, comprised of two of the hardest materials made by the human body, generally withstand the test of time and a thus a great resource for archaeologists seeking to understand how those in previous times lived—primarily through what they ate.

Archaeologists employ several visual techniques when analyzing ancient incisors. Dental wear and tear is a function of type of diet, masticatory forces and the non-masticatory use of teeth. To determine the diet a person subsisted on, archeologists examine the pattern of wear as well as specific markings left on the tooth, otherwise known as dental microwear. Archaeologists utilize resin impressions, microscopes, and 3D topographical scans in order to obtain a close-up view. Striations left on the enamel, in the form of pits and scratches, indicate whether a person ate hard brittle food or tough food that required mandible sheering. Striations can also help archaeologists conclude if the person was living off of a meat or vegetable diet. If a tooth has primarily vertical striations, this would demonstrate a meat diet. Both vertical and horizontal striations, however, are indicative of a vegetable diet

Dental microwear shown through a 3D topographical texture analysis scan

Dental analysis can also be done using the naked eye. This form of archaeological analysis, dental macrowear, can indicate overall nutrition and health, as well as other important factors like age. Archaeologists fashion molds of teeth through non-invasive pouring and casting techniques. Close analysis of these can show the person’s chewing cycle, or tooth wear through grinding. The presence of tooth decay and loss is a main indicator of a person’s health and what food they primarily subsisted off of. A carbohydrate rich diet will be indicated through a greater presence of degenerative changes. This decay also helps archeologists date when specific communities of hunter-gatherers transitioned to an agricultural way of living.To determine age, archaeologists look towards the overall the size, shape, growth, and placement of teeth within the skull. Tooth calculus, or the accumulation of plaque, also help with concluding age for the plaque builds up with time. The number and type of tooth eruptions are also examined, for fewer eruptions indicate that the person was of a younger age at the time of death.

Photo simulations of buccal macro surface wear

Genetic information as well as location and culture can also be garnered through the close archaeological analysis of excavated teeth. Even after thorough bodily decomposition, it is often possible to extract DNA from human teeth. This can then be used to uncover genetic makeup which then helps archaeologists trace lineage and migration patterns. Changes in climate and other historical trends often are indicated by some form of immigration pattern. DNA also provides information on populations that suffered mass disease epidemics. Dental modifications also help archeologists reveal cultural practices. Examples of such include teeth inlayed with decorative jewels and stones, dental etching and filing, and teeth staining.

Further readings:

https://corkarchaeologist.com/2019/10/04/some-dental-morphological-characteristics-of-irish-archaeological-populations-an-aid-to-biological-affinity-and-the-origins-of-the-irish/

https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/10/25/497094756/dental-detectives-what-fossil-teeth-reveal-about-ancestral-human-diets

References

“Dental Archeology.” Konikoff Dental Associates. Accessed September 25, 2022. https://konikoffdental.com/dental-archeology/.

“Dental Bioarchaeology.” Dental One Associates . Dental One Associates . Accessed September 25, 2022. https://www.dentalone-md.com/locations/baltimore-beltway/dental-bioarchaeology/.

“A Guide to Dental and Bioarchaeology.” Rye Smiles for Life. Rye Dentistry . Accessed September 25, 2022. https://www.ryesmilesforlife.com/a-guide-to-dental-and-bioarchaeology/.

Mahajan, Sangeeta. “Ancient Asia.” Ancient Asia. Ubiquity Press, October 23, 2019. https://www.ancient-asia-journal.com/articles/10.5334/aa.181/.

Saraceni, Jessica Esther. “Tooth Decay Troubled Moroccan Hunter-Gatherers.” Archaeology Magazine. Archaeology . Accessed September 25, 2022. https://www.archaeology.org/news/1701-140107-morocco-teeth-decay.

Strangeremains. “Stylish Deformities – Dental Edition.” Strange Remains. Strange Remains , March 10, 2015. https://strangeremains.com/2014/08/26/stylish-deformities-dental-edition/.

What is it that differentiates a pot found underground from thousands of years ago from the ones on a pedestal in museums like the MET? What are the guidelines that consider one as an artifact of the past and one as a piece of art? Or can one object be both?

The textbook definition of an artifact is a “humanly made or modified portable object, such as stone tools, pottery, and metal weapons.” (Renfrew et al. 2018). This definition renders the aesthetic and skill level aspect of a found object to be irrelevant, making an artifact considered anything created by humans.

However, art is defined as “something that is created with imagination and skill and that is beautiful or that expresses important ideas or feelings” (Britannica Dictionary). Taking into account the beauty and expression of an object, many artifacts may fall out of place, but there is definitely overlap between the two. A simple stone vessel with no other intention than to store meat in the winter would likely have no beauty and communicate no ideas of the time, and thus is not art. However a carved stone such as the Venus of Willendorf is now considered one of the oldest surviving works of art.

Venus of Willendorf, (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The Venus of Willendorf, carved from limestone circa 24,000 BCE, is a 4.5 inch tall female figurine. She was named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty, although there is no relation or evidence that she represents that, because of her emphasized reproductive features and understated face and limbs (Zygmont 2015). Although her purpose is unknown, this figure is palm sized and would have been very easy to transport, just as other artifacts of the time. However, it is the aesthetic qualities and the unknown yet clearly existing intentions that went into making her that turn this piece of stone into an artwork that is now on display in the Naturhistorisches Museum of Vienna.

As a form of expression, artwork can offer much more information than just what people needed to live in prehistoric times, but also what they found to be important. From the Venus of Willendorf, we can see that this nomadic society had given an importance to women’s ability to reproduce, as the piece seems to reference fertility.

Ai Weiwei, Dropping a Han Dynasty Urn, 1995 (photo: © Ai Weiwei)

As art can be archaeology, archaeology can also be art. In 1995 Chinese artist Ai Weiwei created the photography series Dropping a Han Dynasty Urn, in which he drops a 2000 year old ceramic urn against the ground, shattering (Beres 2020). Giving this urn a new significance even in destruction, this piece emphasizes how important it is to remember and preserve the past.

Further Reading:
Paleolithic Art, An Introduction 
The Case for Ai Weiwei

References:
“Art Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary.” Accessed September 25, 2022. https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/art.

Beres, Tiffany Wai-Ying. “Ai Weiwei, Dropping a Han Dynasty Urn .” Smarthistory, August 25, 2020. https://smarthistory.org/ai-weiwei-dropping-a-han-dynasty-urn/.

Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. 2018. Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice. Fourth edition. Thames & Hudson.

Zygmont, Bryant. “Venus of Willendorf .” Smarthistory, November 21, 2015. https://smarthistory.org/venus-of-willendorf/.

Over the years, we have seen how the U.S segregates groups based on race, class, and religion. We can see remains (or lack of remains) of this privileged ideology in burial grounds. 

We witness these episodes of mortuary discrimniation several times throughout history. One example we still can see today is right at the Arlington Cemetery in Virginia. This cemetery is quite famous for being the resting place of men and women of the armed forces. While visiting this grave site, you can come across multiple sections with the headstones marked “U.S.C.T.”. These initials stood for United States Colored Troops. The people buried in these sections were African-American soldiers who fought beside the American troops in the Civil War, but ultimately were not allowed to be buried next to them. This eventually expanded to include Black military veterans and civilians as well.

We can also see this in the individual case of Sgt. John R. Rice, a former member of the Winnebago tribe, who was killed in combat in Korea.

The officials of the Sioux City Memorial Park Cemetery, Iowa, had stopped his burial. Right before the coffin could be lowered, his family was informed that the ceremony could not go on as “a clause in the sales contract for the cemetery lot reserved burial privileges for Caucasians only.” Only after lawsuits and intervention by President Truman was Sgt. Rice buried at Arlington National Cemetery with full military honors. This still left the family insulted and distraught as they battled the system that pushed for “racial whiteness beyond embodied, biological life”.

Cited Works:

Sherman, David. “Grave Matters: Segregation and Racism in U.S. Cemeteries.” The Order of the Good Death, 20 Apr. 2020, www.orderofthegooddeath.com/article/grave-matters-segregation-and-racism-in-u-s-cemeteries.

Joint Base Langley-Eustis. “Even in Death, Segregation Is Part of Our History.” Joint Base Langley-Eustis, 3 Apr. 2006, www.jble.af.mil/News/Commentaries/Display/Article/260425/even-in-death-segregation-is-part-of-our-history.

Further Readings:

Flatbush African Burial Ground

https://slate.com/human-interest/2017/01/america-s-segregated-cemeteries-are-important-troves-of-forgotten-black-history.html

Pollen analysis, also known as palynology, was developed in 1916 by Swedish geologist Lennart von Post, and is the study of fossilized pollen to reconstruct the conditions of past climates and vegetation. Because the practice encompasses many scientific fields (geology, ecology, climatology, etc…), it has been considered one of the most valuable dating methods in archaeology. Palynology is mostly utilized to determine changes in vegetation over time, which further aids in chronology, the ordering of events in which they occurred in time.

There are certain types of archaeological sites that prove most fit for pollen analysis to be conducted. Larger basins are most ideal because they usually have more accumulated sediment with longer cores, meaning that a sample with a larger time frame would be taken. Acidic peat bogs and lake beds are also beneficial in the preservation of pollen, and it is most poorly preserved in open sites or exposed areas. There are some other limitations. For instance, constructing a completely accurate account of past climates and surroundings is not possible.

Image 1. Sediment is sampled, the pollen is separated from the sediment matrix, and then it is analyzed to reconstruct vegetation history.

Even with newer research methods being developed relatively often, palynology proves invaluable in present-day archaeology. Researchers applying the method in Cairo, Egypt have discovered evidence that there was a branch of the Nile River, now dried up, that aided in the construction of the Pyramids of Giza. The archaeologists sampled sediment cores, and in their matrixes, recovered fossilized pollen. After further analysis, the pollen was determined to be from local grasses and marsh plants that boarded the edges of lakes and rivers. Because of this, it is believed that water levels of the Nile River’s Khufu branch in around 2550 B.C.E. were high enough to transport construction materials such as limestone and granite to the sites of the pyramids. 

This application of pollen analysis has also aided archaeologists in their research about how the ancient Egyptians traveled using the Nile River. Before the use of palynology, researchers did not have a complete understanding of the environment and surroundings of the Nile River and any land involved. It has greatly contributed to the further understanding of the Nile’s floodplain 4,500 years ago, and the further investigation of hypotheses such as the “fluvial-port-complex” hypothesis. This proposes that the ancient Egyptians, in order to transport materials, created a canal from the Khufu branch to the site where the pyramids were being constructed. There is evidence that they dredged basins to the bottom of the Nile River and used seasonal flood waters as a hydraulic lift to transport heavy materials. 

Image 2. Map of the Nile River

Without pollen analysis, archaeologists, much like those working in Cairo, would not have much understanding of former environments and landscapes. Even though it has some limitations, it still proves extremely useful in present-day archaeology in regards to aiding in chronology and research of past landscapes.

Further Readings:

https://carnegiemnh.org/egypt-and-the-nile/#:~:text=Ancient%20Egypt%20was%20located%20in,role%20within%20the%20Egyptian%20State.

https://ancientengrtech.wisc.edu/ancient-egypt-water-engineering/#:~:text=The%20Egyptians%20practiced%20a%20form,formed%20basins%20of%20various%20sizes.

References:

Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. 2018. Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice. Fourth edition. Thames & Hudson.

Kneller, Margaret. “Pollen Analysis.” SpringerLink. Springer Netherlands, January 1, 2009. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-1-4020-4411-3_192#Sec6_192.

Saraceni, Jessica Esther. “Pollen Study Tracks Ancient Flow of Egypt’s Nile River.” Archaeology Magazine, September 1, 2022. https://www.archaeology.org/news/10804-220901-nile-river-flow.

Stone tools found near mastodon remains by a Florida State University (FSU) team show that early humans were in North Florida roughly 1,500 years earlier than originally thought. In the 1980s and 1990s, two researchers, David Webb and James Dunbar, found a mastodon tusk (Figure 1) in an underwater sinkhole in the Aucilla River called the Page-Ladson Site. In 2014, stone tools were retrieved from this site (FSU 2016).

Figure 1. FSU researchers hold the mastodon tusk found at the Page-Ladson Site. (https://artsandsciences.fsu.edu/article/ancient-tools-and-bone-found-north-florida-river-could-help-rewrite-story-first-americans)

Various organic material from the same layer as the tools and tusk was recovered from sediments in the lake, including seeds, plant fragments, and twigs, allowing for radiocarbon dating to determine that the artifacts found are over 14,500 years old. A stone cutting instrument was discovered, indicating that the early humans in Florida created these stone tools (Bower 2016).

This site is the oldest known site of humans in the southeast (FSU 2016). This finding allowed archaeologists to conclude that people lived in Florida far earlier than previously thought, indicating that the Page-Ladson site was once home to Clovis and pre-Clovis people. (Halligan, et al. 2016). These early humans lived alongside megafauna in Florida, i.e. mastodons, giant ground sloths, giant armadillos, and saber-toothed cats (Kelley, et al. 2015). The tools found indicate that the Clovis and pre-Clovis people living there relied on the megafauna, especially mastodons, as a food source. 

One of the tools found was a biface—a sharp knife used for butchering animals—and upon further investigation of the mastodon tusk found earlier, archaeologists concluded that the markings on the tusk corresponded to those that the biface would have made as early humans cut the tusk to remove it from the skull of the mastodon to consume the tissue found in the tusk (FSU 2016). Another stone tool (Figure 2) found submerged in the lake indicates that early humans hunted mastodons, or at least scavenged from them after another predator took the mastodon down (Bower, 2016).

Figure 2. A stone tool found in sediment at the Page-Ladson site that indicates that humans lived in Florida 14,500 years ago. (https://www.snexplores.org/article/hunter-gatherers-roamed-florida-14500-years-ago)

Additionally, Sporormiella, a type of fungus found in the dung of plant-eating animals, was found in high concentrations in the layers of sediment taken from the same layer as the tools, indicating that early humans and megafauna coexisted in North Florida. There was no evidence of the fungus in 12,600 years old sediment, leading researchers to the conclusion that megafauna went extinct around 12,600 years ago (Bower, 2016).

Humans did not abandon the area after these megafauna went extinct, however. The early Clovis and pre-Clovis people ate whatever they could, and they adapted to the area to stay there long after the megafauna went extinct.

Reference list:

“Ancient Tools and Bone Found in North Florida River Could Help Rewrite the Story of the First Americans.” Florida State University: College of Arts and Sciences. Last modified May 16, 2016. Accessed September 25, 2022. https://artsandsciences.fsu.edu/article/ancient-tools-and-bone-found-north-florida-river-could-help-rewrite-story-first-americans.

Bower, Bruce. “Hunter-Gatherers Roamed Florida 14,500 Years Ago.” Science News Explores. Last modified May 29, 2016. Accessed September 25, 2022. https://www.snexplores.org/article/hunter-gatherers-roamed-florida-14500-years-ago.

Halligan, Jessi J., Michael R. Walters, Angelina Perrotti, Ivy J. Owens, Joshua M. Feinberg, Mark D. Bourne, Brendan Fenerty, Barbara Winsborough, David Carlson, Daniel C. Fischer, Thomas W. Stafford, and James S. Dunbar. “Pre-Clovis Occupation 14,550 Years Ago at the Page-Ladson Site, Florida, and the Peopling of the Americas.” Abstract. Science Advances 2, no. 5 (May 13, 2016). Accessed September 25, 2022. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600375. 

Kelley, Cynthia D., Thomas J. Fellers, and Michael W. Davidson. “Darkfield Digital Image Gallery: Pleistocene Mammal Bone From Florida.” Molecular Expressions: Exploring the World of Optics and Microscopy. Last modified November 13, 2015. Accessed September 25, 2022. https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/olympusmicd/galleries/darkfield/mammalbondpleistocenlow.html#:~:text=Quaternary%20megafaunal%20mammals%20that%20are,%2C%20Ice%20Age%20bison%20.

Additional Content:

https://youtu.be/gmayKozVQ4w 

 https://www.ancient-origins.net/news-evolution-human-origins/first-humans-florida-lived-alongside-giant-animals-002518

Human remains have been able to give archaeologists key clues as to how humans lived in the past. Studies performed around the conditions of human skeletons as well as where and with what these skeletons were buried have provided information used to discern what social structures, nutritional factors, causes of death, activities, and so many more factors of everyday life were like (Renfrew and Bahn 2018, 47, 51-60). A prime example of burial analysis giving context into the health and societal structures of times long past is a recent study performed by the University of Cambridge, England. 

In this study, scientists and archaeologists unearthed the burial grounds of a medieval friary located under the University of Cambridge, analyzing nineteen skeletons (Figure 1) dating mostly from the 13th and 14th centuries. From the late 13th century until the middle of the 16th century, the Augustinian friary was a place of academic study and living for clergymen, much more sanitary than the average Cambridge street crowded with peasants (Davis 2022). 

Figure 1. Archaeologists excavate and examine the skeletons of Cambridge monks, Cambridge, England. Photograph by University of Cambridge Archaeological Unit.

Many of the researchers originally believed that due to their drastically improved sanitation, those living within the friary’s walls would be much less likely to contract parasites, which were a frequently cited problem in medieval medical records and diaries due to (what we now know to be) poor living conditions (Figure 2). Out of the nineteen bodies analyzed, at least eleven had the remains of intestinal worms present, which would have been living in the monks’ systems as they were still living. Meanwhile, out of twenty five peasant bodies analyzed from a nearby cemetery, only eight contained parasites (Handwerk 2022). Thirty percent of medieval Cambridge citizens suffered from parasites (Handwerk 2022), a statistic which did not surprise the researchers. However, the evidence provided by the dig revealed that nearly twice as many monks died with parasites in their systems than peasants in the area (Davis 2022), puzzling scientists and archaeologists as to how this could have occurred. 

Figure 2. Reconstructive drawing of a medieval peasant house, highlighting lack of sanitation. Image by Pat Hughes, retrieved from Current Archaeology 2013.

After much study into the habits of these monks compared to the routines and diets outside of the private friary’s walls, researchers theorized that the monks often handled fertilizer they created from human waste to spread in their gardens, which we now know leads to a much higher risk of spreading parasites. Dr. Piers Mitchell, co-author of the study, summarized their findings by saying “What we learn about the past is that just because you’re wealthier doesn’t mean to say you’re healthier” (Davis 2022). 

This study brings into context how archaeology can reveal an amazing amount of information about the social structures and health habits of people living centuries ago. Through analyzing something as minute as whether these corpses contained parasites while they were living, archeologists and scientists were able to make new discoveries about possible practices within everyday life in different societal groups of medieval Cambridge. Archaeological study of burial sites truly is instrumental in discovering what humans’ lives in our planet’s past were really like.

Further Reading: 

Standards of Living in the Middle Ages – Ian Dawson 

The Daily Life of Medieval Monks – Mark Cartwright 

References:  

Current Archaeology. 2013. “Peasant Houses in Midland England: How the Black Death Prompted A Building Boom.” Current Archaeology, May 2. (Retrieved from https://archaeology.co.uk/articles/features/peasant-houses-in-midland-england-how-the-black-death-prompted-a-building-boom.htm) 

Davis, Nicola. 2022. “DIY Fertiliser May Be Behind Monks’ Parasite Torment, Say Archaeologists.” The Guardian, August 19. (Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/science/2022/aug/19/diy-fertiliser-may-be-behind-monk-parasite-torment-say-archaeologists-cambridge). 

Handwerk, Brian. 2022. “Why Were Medieval Monks So Susceptible to Intestinal Worms?” Smithsonian Magazine, August 18. (Retrieved from https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-were-medieval-monks-so-susceptible-to-intestinal-worms-180980608/) 

Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. 2018. Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice. Fourth ed. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 47, 51-60. 

     Almost everyone in the world knows of the TerraCotta warriors. Legendary soldiers meant to guard the tomb of China’s first emperor, Qin Shi Huang. These statues were first discovered in march of 1974 by peasants digging a well, and were later explored and excavated by archaeologists. What many people dont know is that the pits housing the warriors are but one small portion of a much larger necropolis, a tomb city built to be the final resting place of the man who first unified the warring states of China. 

     Located in a massive burial mound near the city of Xi’an China, the vast tomb covers over 20 square miles. It contains an inner city, an outer wall, and miles of various structures built around it. The pits from where the terraCotta warriors were recovered are just one of these structures. They were built to the east of the tomb, to defend it from enemies. Despite the vast wealth of knowledge uncovered from these outer relics, the tomb proper has yet to be fully excavated or explored, due to concerns for the safety of the artifacts still lying within. When the terracotta warriors were first uncovered, a lack of proper conservation techniques combined with the dry air of Xi’an led to rapid damage to the colorfully painted coatings the statues once had. The Chinese government has stated that it will not open up the rest of the mausoleum to excavation until it can be guaranteed that similar damage will not occur to the rest of the tomb. Despite this reluctance, a number of novel archaeology techniques have allowed Chinese historians to gain some level of understanding of what lies inside. For example, analysis of the soil around the tomb has managed to back up the claims of ancient Chinese historian Sima Qian in regards to the massive amount of mercury used within the tomb.

     In ancient China, the element mercury was believed to be an elixir of life. It is even theorized that the death of the first emperor was due to consumption of mercury in the hopes of prolonging his life. As such, mercury played a major role within his tomb complex. According to historical records from Sima Qian written approximately 80 years after his death, the tomb contained massive rivers and lakes of mercury in a facsimile of major Chinese bodies of water at the time. This was backed up by Chinese scientists Guangyu Zhao, Weixing Zhang, Zheng Duan, Ming Lian, Ningbin Hou, Yiyun Li, Shiming Zhu & Sune Svanberg in 2020. The scientists used laser radar scanning of mercury emissions in the soil to determine approximately the amount of mercury lost in the form of vapor over the years. “We obtain a total loss of mercury to air of the order of 1 ton of liquid mercury.” (Zhao et. al 2020). This helps back up the ancient historical claims about the massive amount of the element contained within the tomb.

     Another new method being discussed to increase our understanding of the tomb lies in utilizing cosmic rays. When cosmic rays impact earth’s atmosphere, they break down into smaller subatomic particles known as muons. Similarly to x-rays, muons pass through objects, however they pass through heavier objects like stone and metal slower than dirt or air. Yuanyuan Liu, a scientist working at Beijing Tsinghua university was the one to propose the idea of using these cosmic particles to study the emperor’s tomb. By placing muon detectors underneath the tomb complex, a kind of x-ray can be taken of the inner caverns. While this idea is still theoretical, it shows promise as a non harmful way of seeing the inside of this magnificent construction. The tomb necropolis of Qin Shi Huang is a treasure trove of archaeological and historical knowledge waiting to be uncovered. While many traditional methods of excavation are unusable due to concerns over damage, this provides a wonderful opportunity for new and innovative methods of survey to be used.

Further reading

https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3159821/china-mulls-planting-cosmic-ray-detectors-tomb-qin-shi-huang

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-67305-x

References

Zhao, G., Zhang, W., Duan, Z., Lian, M., Hou, N., Li, Y., Zhu, S., & Svanberg, S. (2020, June 26). Mercury as a geophysical tracer gas – emissions from the emperor Qin tomb in xi´an studied by Laser Radar. Nature News. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-67305-x 

Chen, S. (2021, December 30). Could cosmic rays unlock the secret tomb guarded by China’s Terracotta Army? South China Morning Post. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3159821/china-mulls-planting-cosmic-ray-detectors-tomb-qin-shi-huang 

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Qin Tomb. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved September 23, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/place/Qin-tomb