About 55.6 million kilometers from the moon orbits another trove of space archeology: Mars (Ropelato, 2023). Named after the Roman god of war, Mars carries its own mythology. However, many of the stories which actually surround Mars, the planet, are relatively modern, brought about by space exploration and imaging of the red giant. Some of Mars’s earliest archeology begins with an Italian astronomer, Giovanni Schiaparelli. After close observation of Mars, or as close as was possible in the 1870s, Schiaparelli claimed to have found canals on the surface of Mars (Figure 1), an observation many others took to be evidence of extraterrestrial life (Tietz, 2019). Despite later evidence which would disprove the presence of any sort of canals on Mars, the possibility of Martians had already crept into literature and media alike. From cartoons to comics to horror movies, Mars had made its way irrevocably into popular culture. 

However, the progression away from the highly fictionalized version of Mars has not been a linear one. Though Schiaparelli’s theory was quickly disproven, yet another theory took its place. A century later, an orbiter sent by NASA named Viking 1 captured a series of images of what would come to be known as the region Cydonia (David S., 2019). Seemingly resembling a face, a geological feature captured in an image sparked conversations from communities across the globe. Though NASA officials insisted the geographic feature was nothing more than exactly that, a pair of scientists were convinced otherwise, publishing a book titled Unusual Martian Surface Features. Although, once again, more recent imaging has confirmed the feature to be a rock formation, the general public’s love for conspiracy gave a great deal of attention to this theory. Once again, Mars had found its way into the news and media. 

Further reading on Mars in mythology and popular culture can be found at: https://www.hindustantimes.com/lifestyle/art-culture/mars-as-seen-from-earth-the-red-planet-in-pop-culture-101620404367145.html 

The investigation into such theories has left a great deal of actual archeological artifacts both in space and on the surface of Mars. From the previously mentioned Viking 1 to more recent spacecrafts, such as the Opportunity and Curiosity rovers (Figure 2), man-made artifacts litter the desert planet (“Mars Exploration Rovers,” 2019). The purpose of the research these rovers conducted not only served to discover more about the planet Mars, but to apply said research to our own planet. Found to once have been as inhabitable as earth, complete with oceans, rivers, and a thick atmosphere, The Mars we know now has changed quite a bit (Drake, 2021). Research of Mars has aided scientists in understanding the evolution of planets and the future of our own earth. 

To find a comprehensive list of all spacecrafts sent to investigate Mars by NASA, read: https://mars.nasa.gov/mars-exploration/missions/?page=0&per_page=99&order=date+desc&search= 

References

Anderson, David S. “Archaeology on Mars – from the Fantastical to the Real.” Forbes, February 18, 2019. https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidanderson/2019/02/15/archaeology-on-mars-from-the-fantastical-to-the-real/?sh=7618bbac4cd1. 

Drake, Nadia. “Why We Explore Mars-and What Decades of Missions Have Revealed.” Science, May 4, 2021. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/mars-exploration-article?loggedin=true&rnd=1701641216737. 

“Mars Exploration Rovers.” NASA, September 7, 2019. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars-exploration/missions/mars-exploration-rovers/. 

“‘Mars, Face On.’ Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology. Encyclopedia.Com. 15 Nov. 2023 . https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mars-face. 

Ropelato, Jerry. “How Far Is Mars from the Moon?” WhiteClouds, September 10, 2023. https://www.whiteclouds.com/faq/how-far-is-mars-from-the-moon/#:~:text=Since%20the%20Moon%20orbits%20Earth,(approximately%2034.6%20million%20miles). 

Tietz, Tabea. “Giovanni Schiaparelli and the Martian Canals.” SciHi Blog, March 14, 2019. http://scihi.org/giovanni-schiaparelli-martian-canals/. 

TW: Holocaust

The public perception of archaeology is often strewed with misconceptions and myths that limit the field and misconstrue its relevance. Archaeology in very basic terms is the study of the human past through material remains (Boudreau et al 2023). While the general public understands these vague facets of archaeology they seem to not comprehend that the past can cover something as ancient as Cahokia to something as contemporary as Woodstock. A study, by Ramos and Dugganne (2000), found that 12% of their participants when asked what word they would use to describe archaeology replied “antiquity” and another 9% answered “ancient societies.” Around 99% of that same group of respondents when asked “Do you think that archaeologists study…” chose the option of “ancient civilizations” (Ramos and Dugganne 2000).

Archaeology is no longer simply fascinated with these great ancient civilizations, but more and more focuses on the events that have occurred within the last century. Just because the previous century has had more accounts and written histories doesn’t mean that there isn’t room for archaeological exploration. Archaeology can reveal details that written records have simply missed such as the gravity of the tragedies at the Treblinka death camp. 

Treblinka was a Nazi death camp in Poland that after only 16 months was destroyed and covered with a farmhouse, trees, and farming land to disguise the atrocities that had occurred (“Archaeologists” 2014). In 1946, investigators of the German war crimes found evidence of the site such as burnt posts and ashes mixed with sand that had “numerous human bones” (Sturdy Colls 2012).  Aside from this, a majority of the information about the site came from Nazi confessions and a few survivors (Pappas 2022). The post-war investigations were the last true studies of the camp and there was no evidence of mass graves and killings until the work of forensic archaeologist Caroline Sturdy Colls (Sturdy Colls 2012). 

Sturdy Colls began with non-invasive methods of surveying the site in order to respect the bodies that remained there (Pappas 2022). She made use of geophysical surveying tools such as GPR, electrical imaging, and resistance survey then eventually a LiDAR survey (Sturdy Colls 2012). The LiDAR revealed various structures such as mass graves, one that was 63 x 58 feet in size (Pappas 2022). Sturdy Colls and her team were permitted to excavate a section of the possible graves; they found shoes, ammunition, and bones, many of which had cut marks indicating some form of assault (Pappas 2022). As excavations of the different sites within Treblinka continued, Sturdy Colls would find evidence of two gas chambers. They reported brick wall foundations and even tiles that were stamped with Stars of David likely to “lull [the] Jewish prisoners into compliance before they were killed” (“Archaeologists” 2014).

Before Sturdy Colls’ research “everybody has assumed that because the history books said it was destroyed, it was” (Pappas 2022). Archaeology was able to uncover some of the monstrosities of the Holocaust that many deny ever happened. Archaeology forces people to face the facts with evidence like artifacts that are often undeniable. Today’s population forgets that at some point we will all be history and what has occurred in the last century is a part of the history of humankind. Archaeology is crucial to our recent history as it unveils the truth of what many don’t wish to record or see. 

References:

“Archaeologists Delicately Dig up Nazi Death Camp Secrets at Treblinka.” NBCNews.Com, NBCUniversal News Group, 29 Mar. 2014, www.nbcnews.com/science/science-news/archaeologists-delicately-dig-nazi-death-camp-secrets-treblinka-n66241.

Boudreau, Diane, et al. “Archaeology.” National Geographic, education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/archaeology/. Accessed 3 Dec. 2023.

Duggane, David, and Maria Ramos. Exploring Public Perceptions and Attitudes about Archaeology, Society for American Archaeology, 2022, documents.saa.org/container/docs/default-source/doc-publicoutreach/harris_poll1999.pdf?sfvrsn=8fefd9a4_4.

Pappas, Stephanie. “First-Ever Excavation of Nazi Death Camp Treblinka Reveals Horrors.” LiveScience, Purch, 17 Aug. 2022, www.livescience.com/44443-treblinka-archaeological-excavation.html.

Sturdy Colls, Caroline. “Treblinka: Revealing the Hidden Graves of the Holocaust.” BBC News, BBC, 23 Jan. 2012, www.bbc.com/news/magazine-16657363. 

Additional Sources:

Sturdy Colls, Caroline. “Holocaust Archaeology: Archaeological Approaches to Landscapes of Nazi Genocide and Persecution.” Journal of Conflict Archaeology, vol. 7, no. 2, 2012, pp. 70–104. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/48601876. Accessed 3 Dec. 2023.

Killgrove, Kristina. “21st Century Archaeology Is Something out of Sci-Fi.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 19 Feb. 2016, www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2016/02/19/21st-century-archaeology-is-something-out-of-sci-fi/?sh=6fde61ac3e7a. 

We all know Neil Armstrong’s famous words: “That’s one small step for man. One giant leap for mankind.” From the beginning, American space travel has been a male-dominated industry. In recent years, the field of space exploration has witnessed a significant shift towards inclusivity, with more women actively participating in missions and research. While both men and women have proven themselves capable in the challenging environment of space, there are compelling reasons why women may be particularly well-suited for the rigors of space exploration. One of the foremost considerations in planning space missions is the management of resources. From spacecraft design to supply logistics, every pound of payload is carefully calculated. “Females are, on average, smaller and lighter than males” (Jackson 2023). Their smaller size translates into lower mass requirements for space missions, allowing for more efficient resource utilization (Figure 1). “Female astronauts have lower water requirements for hydration, total energy expenditure, oxygen (O₂) consumption, carbon dioxide (CO₂), and metabolic heat production” (Jackson 2023).

In the context of extended space missions, where resources are finite and resupply options are limited, the ability to make the most of available supplies is a critical factor. Women’s smaller physical footprint ensures that spacecraft can carry more provisions for longer missions, contributing to the sustainability of space exploration endeavors. Smaller body masses result in lower fuel requirements for propulsion systems. This is particularly significant in missions where every kilogram of weight carries a substantial cost in terms of fuel consumption. Women’s smaller physiques contribute to overall fuel efficiency, making it easier to reach distant celestial bodies with the available resources. While the advantages of smaller physiques in space are compelling, it is essential to address concerns related to the design of space toilets. Historically, space toilets have been engineered with the male anatomy in mind, posing challenges for female astronauts (Figure 2). They are designed to recycle water from urine, but not when any other matter is detected; ie. fecal matter or period blood. “Problems [occur] when period blood is involved, and as a result, most female astronauts will use contraceptive methods to suppress their periods” (Beall 2019). The intricate design of these toilets, involving suction mechanisms and specially shaped funnels, can be less accommodating for women. In conclusion, the discussion surrounding the potential advantages of women’s smaller physiques in space exploration sheds light on fascinating considerations for future missions. The efficiency gains in resource utilization, spacecraft design, and fuel consumption are compelling factors to explore. However, it is crucial to recognize that astronaut selection should primarily focus on the capabilities, skills, and qualifications of individuals, rather than solely emphasizing physical attributes. 

References

Beall, Abigail. “How NASA Failed Female Astronauts and Built Space Travel for Men.” WIRED UK, May 22, 2019. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/nasa-moon-women-astronauts.

Fischer, Jack. Nasa 2023

Jackson, Justin. “Study Finds Female Astronauts More Efficient, Suggesting Future Space Missions with All-Female Crews.” Phys.org, May 5, 2023. https://phys.org/news/2023-05-female-astronauts-efficient-future-space.html#:~:text=Researchers%20from%20the%20Space%20Medicine,metabolic%20heat%20production%20during%20space.

Jackson, Libby. “Women (Probably) Make for Better Astronauts. So Should the First Crew to Mars Be All-Female?” BBC Science Focus Magazine – Science, Nature, technology, q&as, May 22, 2023. https://www.sciencefocus.com/space/women-female-mars.

Scientific Reports (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-31713-6

Further Reading:

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/23/science/moon-landing-women-apollo-11.html https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/space-travel-four-ways-women-are-a-better-fit-than-men

Space, at least post-Cold War, is generally associated with the potential scientific discoveries and opportunities that it provides. NASA consistently launches probes and telescopes which are expanding human understanding of space. So then, why are private companies, helmed by some of Earth’s most famous CEOs, building rockets to take themselves and those who can afford a ticket on short range space trips? What scientific purpose are these spacecraft serving? These billionaires would tell you they are pushing the frontiers of space. But they aren’t telling the full story. These commercial trips have not yet produced any type of scientific discovery or insight, and most reactions to these publicized jaunts up to space are negative (Nguyen 2022). And for good reason. Billionaire space travel serves no purpose, instead illustrating the egos of these CEOs and the inherent inequality of capitalism.

This race between Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos, and Richard Branson (Figure 1) is fueled not by genuine scientific curiosity, but by their egos. Each of these three, high powered, public figures has a history of both excessive stunts for public attention and of competition with each other (Kaplan 2021). At the same time, throughout the new “space race,” there have been multiple public, albeit subtle, jabs towards each other. Jeff Bezos tweeted “Welcome to the club,” to Musk after he landed a rocket vertically for the first time, establishing the fact that he had done so first. Musk responded by making it clear that while his rockets had gone into orbit, Bezos’ had only gone to space (Kaplan 2021). Clearly, scientific discovery is not especially top of mind for any of these billionaires. Rather, they are more concerned with publicly winning against each other.

While rich CEOs spend their spare money on space exploration, their employees are struggling with basic workers rights. In the same summer while Bezos, Musk, and Branson were competing over the first to space, the Covid-19 pandemic was ravaging the public and climate catastrophes were happening throughout the world (Silverman 2021). To spend billions of dollars on something as inessential as a short joyride to space while there are so many other deserving causes seems unethical, to say the least. But Bezos took this a step further, taking the time to thank his employees before the launch of his rocket, “because you guys paid for this” (Skinner 2021). Thanking the same people who are struggling to support their families for helping him take a quick trip to space seems dystopian, especially given the allegations of worker mistreatment in Amazon warehouses (Figure 2). Under capitalism, such intense class inequality can not only exist, but be publicly celebrated. Billionaire space travel is largely useless and inaccessible to the majority of the public due to price. It is fueled only by masculine ego, and made possible only through the class inequality created by capitalism.

References:

Guendelsberger, Emily. “Amazon Treats Its Warehouse Workers like Robots: Ex-Employee.” Time, July 18, 2019. https://time.com/5629233/amazon-warehouse-employee-treatment-robots/.

Kaplan, Michael. “Space Race: Inside Ego-Fueled Competition of Bezos, Musk and Branson.” New York Post, June 26, 2021. https://nypost.com/2021/06/26/musk-bezos-and-branson-fueled-by-big-egos-in-space-race/.

Nguyen, Terry. “It’s the Dawn of a New Space Age – at Least for Billionaires.” Vox, February 2, 2022. https://www.vox.com/the-goods/22911159/new-space-age-billionaires-culture.

Silverman, Jacob. “The Billionaire Space Race Is a Tragically Wasteful Ego Contest.” The New Republic, July 9, 2021. https://newrepublic.com/article/162928/richard-branson-jeff-bezos-space-blue-origin.

Skinner, Chloe. “Billionaires, Backlash and the Phallic Symbolism of Space Colonisation.” Countering Backlash, August 2, 2021. https://counteringbacklash.org/billionaires-backlash-and-the-phallic-symbolism-of-space-colonisation/.

Further Reading:

• https://www.dezeen.com/2022/03/03/vulva-spaceship-design-aims-to-counter-prevalence-of-phalluses/
• https://time.com/6191846/billionaire-space-race-climate/