In September 2022, near Prague in the Czech Republic, archaeologists discovered the remains of a 7,000-year-old round structure, which is older than Stonehenge (Killgrove 2022). This type of circular building, commonly called a “roundel”, measures more than 50 meters in diameter. It is not the first time such remains have been excavated: the earliest roundel yet discovered, known as the Goseck Circle, was found in Germany in 1991 and measures 75 meters in diameter. A few hundreds of these types of structures have been discovered throughout Europe, especially in Central Europe where many farming communities gathered and built villages between 4900 B.C.E. and 4400 B.C.E, such as the people of the Stroked Pottery culture (Killgrove 2022).

This archaeological finding is representative of the progress of archaeological techniques over the past decades, with the popularization of drones and aerial photography. This type of archaeological survey is made up of two parts : first, data collection (drones are used to take aerial photographs of archaeological sites), and then data analysis (the images are analyzed and interpreted) (Renfrew 2018:70). In this case, from the sky, archaeologists observed that roundels consist of round ditches and concentric rings of holes, usually pierced by gates (Figure 1). Then, these features can be interpreted.

Figure 1: An aerial picture of the Prague roundel. (Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences)

According to archaeologists and researchers, the true function of these roundels is still unknown. As for the Goseck Circle, the placement of the gates seems important : since two of them correspond with “sunrise and sunset during the winter and summer solstices” (Killgrove 2022), they thought that it was an observatory just like Stonehenge (Biehl 2012). However, this is only a theory. Others are not as certain, preferring to say it had several purposes : it could have been serving as a trade center, or as a religious center where rituals were performed from time to time (Jacobs 2022). As for the Prague roundel, the researchers and Miroslav Kraus (director of the excavations) expressed their hope of actually discovering hints about the function of the building. Excavations are still underway, in order to understand its vertical stratification (Figure 2), which represents changes through times.

Figure 2: Stratigraphy of the excavation. (Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences)

With this process of excavation, archaeologists hope to find clues about the precise date of the construction of the mysterious structure and its purpose. Moreover, archaeologists also expect to find potential graves or tools that could give us more information about the people who built these buildings : since they only had wood and stones as tools, these roundels are surprising. However, although it sounds pessimistic, it is “unlikely since none of the previously researched roundels have revealed such information”, Miroslav Kraus said (Archaeology 2022).

Further Reading:

https://www.jstor.org/stable/26272491?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents

https://architecturecompetitions.com/4-simple-concepts-of-prehistoric-architecture

References:

1) Biehl, Peter. April 16, 2012. “Meanings and Functions of Enclosed Places in the European Neolithic: A Contextual Approach to Cult, Ritual, and Religion.” Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association. Volume 21, Issue 1: 130-146. https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1551-8248.2012.01041.x

2) Jacobs, Harrison. September 23, 2022. “Archaeologists Discovered 7,000-Year-Old Structure Older Than Stonehenge or Pyramids of Giza.” ARTnews. https://www.artnews.com/art-news/news/archaeology-news-czech-roundel-older-stonehenge-giza-pyramids-1234640376/

4) September 12, 2022. “Footprint of a Prehistoric Structure Uncovered Near Prague.” Archaeology. https://www.archaeology.org/news/10822-220912-prague-vinor-structure

5) Renfrew, Colin & Bahn, Paul. November 26, 2018. Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice. Chapter 3:70. Thames & Hudson, 4th edition.

Burial sites can reveal a lot about an individual’s identity and story. For instance, archaeologists excavated the site of Arma Veirana in Liguria and examined the opening of a trench found close to the Eastern cave wall. At this opening, a team of researchers at the University of Montreal discovered a burial of a female infant. DNA and tooth analyses indicate that she was most likely 50 days old when she was buried during the Early Mesolithic period (about 10,000 BCE) just after the last Ice Age. (Gravel-Miguel et al. 2022)

The leader of the team, Gravel-Miguel, remarked, “I was excavating in the adjacent square and remember looking over and thinking ‘that’s a weird bone.’ It quickly became clear that not only we were looking at a human cranium, but that it was also of a very young individual. It was an emotional day.” (Arizona State University, 2021)

These archaeologists not only unearthed the bones of the infant but ancient human ornaments as well. Typically, such ornaments are considered a means to express identity, including hierarchical status and gender, but they could also be utilized to protect one from evil spirits. The female infant was buried with numerous perforated shells and pendants, allowing researchers to uncover how early humans used these beads. Through various kinds of analyses, they concluded that the beads were in fact a part of the baby’s sling. (Gravel-Miguel et al. 2022)

An artistic representation of Neve’s burial, displaying the infant’s sling with the perforated beads attached.

Although there are no remains of the sling itself today, the surrounding shells in the burial site are perforated in such a way that suggests someone threaded the shells together and then sewed them on a type of textile or animal hide. Another result of the analyses is that the shells were heavily worn down, and therefore, they were likely worn by other community members before being attached to the sling (Heinrich, 2022). The purpose of the sling was likely in order to keep the infant near her parents while simultaneously allowing them to move around (Gravel-Miguel et al. 2022).

The anatomical parts of the shells that were sewn on the sling. The blue outline on the dorsal side describes the general area of most of the perforations.

Furthermore, the research team proposed that the infant’s community might have adorned her sling with beads primarily to defend her against evil. As her death indicated that those beads had failed their purpose of protecting her, however, the community thought it ideal to bury the sling instead of reusing it. (Heinrich, 2022)

Since the 2017 excavation, archaeologists named the buried infant “Neve”, and dental analysis of her teeth implies she is the “oldest female child buried in Europe” (Cassella, 2022). New research and future studies emphasize the means of childcare during prehistory and the possible use (and reuse) of beads for protecting community members and strengthening social connections within the tribes (Heinrich, 2022).

Reference Links:
Gravel-Miguel, C., Cristiani, E., Hodgkins, J. et al. The Ornaments of the Arma Veirana Early Mesolithic Infant Burial. J Archaeol Method Theory (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-022-09573-7

Heinrich, J. (2022, September 26). Bringing up baby, 10,000 years ago. udemnouvelles. Retrieved September 30, 2022, from https://nouvelles.umontreal.ca/en/article/2022/09/26/bringing-up-baby-10-000-years-ago/

Cassella, C. (2022, September 29). Ancient Burial of a Young Girl Shows How We Carried Our Babies 10,000 Years Ago. ScienceAlert. Retrieved September 30, 2022, from https://www.sciencealert.com/ancient-burial-of-a-young-girl-shows-how-we-carried-our-babies-10000-years-ago

Arizona State University. (2021, December 14). Earliest adorned female infant burial in Europe significant in understanding evolution of personhood. Phys.org. Retrieved October 2, 2022, from https://phys.org/news/2021-12-earliest-adorned-female-infant-burial.html

Additional Content:
Hodgkins, J., Orr, C.M., Gravel-Miguel, C. et al. An infant burial from Arma Veirana in northwestern Italy provides insights into funerary practices and female personhood in early Mesolithic Europe. Sci Rep 11, 23735 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02804-z

Martinón-Torres, M., d’Errico, F., Santos, E. et al. Earliest known human burial in Africa. Nature 593, 95–100 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03457-8

In the mid-1950’s, a team of researchers from Columbia University found Neanderthal remains inside Shanidar Cave in Iraqi Kurdistan (Figure 1). The main excavations of the site were done in Shanidar cave from 1956 to 1961, and 11 Neanderthal remains have been found that date back to 35,000 to 65,000 years (Sissakian, 2019). One of the skeletons, known as Shanidar 4, was debated to have been buried in a “flower burial”. Another skeleton known as Shanidar 1 displayed evidence of disabling injuries, which suggested care for group members with debilitating injuries. Though there is debate about the burial of Shanidar 4, Shanidar Cave still shines a light on the behavior of Neanderthals and our knowledge of the species (Pomeroy, 2020).

Figure 1: A photo of the entrance to Shanidar Cave. Retrieved from https://www.science.org.

Another discovery of the burial of a small child in a cave in Kenya (Figure 2) has been thought to have been the oldest human burial in Africa, dating back to roughly 78,000 years ago. The child was thought to be about 3 years old at the time of death, and was buried curled up in a shallow grave. Portions of the child’s skeleton have been found in 2013, however, the actual burial site wasn’t discovered until 2017. It was also discovered that the child had been tightly shrouded in its position, showing deliberate preparation. The site was dated using a method known as luminescence dating (Ronen, 2012). Luminescence dating is a method used in archaeology and the earth sciences and has an age range of about a century or less to over one hundred thousand years (Aberystwyth University, 2008).

Figure 2: Photo of Panga ya Saidi Cave in Kenya. Retreived from https://www.indiatoday.in.

Despite being the oldest human burial in Africa, the oldest burial was found in Israel, dating back to about 130,000 years ago. Two populations, modern humans and Neanderthals, are associated with the total of about 40 individuals found buried. The practices of the two populations are similar, consisting of placing the corpse in a prepared pit, occasionally alongside grave goods, then filling the pit. There are also signs of the protection of the corpses from scavenging animals. Occasionally, stones were placed on the skeleton or on top of the pit after it had been filled in. The two most common types of objects used as grave goods were animal parts and symbolic objects. The fact that these individuals were buried intentionally occasionally with objects shows that these burials were not just to dispose of a dead body, but were intentionally done out of respect, as it had no clear benefit in the material world of quest for food, shelter, or defense (Ronen, 2012).

Overall, there are many different ways that humans have buried their dead over the years, as we have been practicing the act of burying the dead for hundreds of thousands of years. Early humans bury their dead despite it costing resources that could be used to prolong the survival of the group. This shows that early humans and even Neanderthals had the same if not similar capability to feel as we do now.

References:

Biovin, Nicole. “Oldest Human Burial in Africa.” Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, 5 May 2021, https://www.mpg.de/16809187/0429-wisy-oldest-human-burial-in-africa-9347732-x. 

Culotta, Elizabeth. “New Remains Discovered at Site of Famous Neanderthal ‘Flower Burial’.” Science, 22 Jan. 2019, https://www.science.org/content/article/new-remains-discovered-site-famous-neanderthal-flower-burial.

Guidelines on Using Luminescence Dating in Archaeology. 2008, https://www.aber.ac.uk/en/media/departmental/dges/pdf/english_heritage_luminescence_dating.pdf. 

Pomeroy, Emma, et al. “New Neanderthal Remains Associated with the ‘Flower Burial’ at Shanidar Cave: Antiquity.” Cambridge Core, Cambridge University Press, 18 Feb. 2020, https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/new-neanderthal-remains-associated-with-the-flower-burial-at-shanidar-cave/E7E94F650FF5488680829048FA72E32A. 

Reuters. “Child’s Grave at 78,000-Year-Old Burial Site Tells of Early Man’s Emotional Life: Kenyan Archaeologist.” India Today, 13 May 2021, https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/child-grave-at-kenya-oldest-burial-site-tells-of-emotions-1801960-2021-05-13.

Ronen, Avraham. “The Oldest Burials and Their Significance (Chapter 27) – African Genesis.” Cambridge Core, Cambridge University Press, 5 Apr. 2012, https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/african-genesis/oldest-burials-and-their-significance/1B10F74654E37D2BC17D34C79E819134.

Sissakian, Varoujan K. “Shanidar Cave – an Interesting Archaeological Site in the Kurdistan …” Shanidar Cave – An Interesting Archaeological Site in the Kurdistan Region, Iraq, UKH Journal of Science and Engineering, 27 Dec. 2019, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338205868_Shanidar_Cave_-_An_Interesting_Archaeological_Site_in_the_Kurdistan_Region_Iraq.

Further Reading:

https://thekurdishproject.org/history-and-culture/kurdish-history/historical-sites-in-kurdistan/shanidar-cave/

https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2021/may/oldest-human-burial-in-africa-discovered-in-kenya.html

In 1985 a Texan man stands by a mass grave in Argentina. He wears beaten down cowboy boots and speaks with a warm southern drawl. His work will help identify countless human remains around the globe. This man is Clyde Snow. 

Born in the town of Fort Worth, Texas in 1928, Snow would go on to be expelled from high school, drop out of his first university, and join the air force before earning his Phd in anthropology. His career began investigating airplane crashes with the Federal Aviation Administration and progressed into work in crime scene investigation, historical documentation, and human rights efforts (O’Dell). 

Figure 1. Clyde Snow 1986. Photograph by David Longstreath (Associated Press)

In the early stages of his career, modern analysis techniques weren’t widely used, and most scientists relied on the Bertillon system, which involved a series of different measurements ranging from the little finger to the femur (Snow 1982:98). Snow developed techniques himself using the knowledge he gained while working towards his doctorate. He could estimate the age of an individual by examining the fusion of growth plates through a process called ossification, and behavioral information like handedness or muscle use was revealed to him by differences in arm length and bone density respectively. Some of his most influential developments came from analysis of the skull, which allowed him to estimate facial structure, sex and ancestry – this knowledge made him a pioneer in the field of facial reconstruction (McFadden 2014). Snow’s ten step process of forensic anthropology outlines the proper order of investigation and is still taught around the world today (Snow 1982:104).

Figure 2. Clyde Snow and Argentinian volunteers 1985. Photograph courtesy of Clyde Snow

Snow used these techniques in a wide variety of settings, ranging from the identification of victims of serial killers to documentation of mass grave sites. One of these large scale burial sites was located in Argentina, where a group of students assisted him in analyzing the skeletons of over five hundred individuals who disappeared during the seven year “dirty war”. These individuals showed evidence of violent torture, and the work of Snow and his students lead to legal ramifications for those involved in the disappearances. He did similar work in Croatia and El Salvador, and investigated mass murder cases in Ethiopia, Guatemala, and the United States – including the victims of infamous serial killer John Wayne Gacy (Well 2014). His work also had significant effects on the interpretation of history, particularly when he identified the remains of Nazi “Angel of Death” Josef Mengele in Brazil. 

Figure 3. Clyde Snow presenting at the trial of the Argentinian Junta 1985. Photograph by Daniel Muzio.

However, it was his efforts in the investigation of the murder of President John Fitzgerald Kennedy that sparked immense rewards for the field of forensic anthropology. His confirmation of the president’s x-rays pushed the American Academy of Forensic Sciences to make forensic anthropology an official specialty (Well 2014). In his words, the field of forensic anthropology is “the application of the physical anthropologist’s specialized knowledge of the human sexual, racial, age, and individual variation to problems jurisprudence”, and though it is straightforward in practice, the effects that field has had on criminal investigation and historical documentation cannot be underestimated (Snow 1982:128).

REFERENCES:

McFadden, Robert.

    2014. Clyde Snow, Sleuth Who Read Bones from King Tut’s to Kennedy’s, Dies at          86. The New York Times.

     https://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/17/us/clyde-snow-forensic-detective-who-               found-clues-in-bones-dies-at-86.html. Accessed October 1, 2022.

O’Dell, Larry.

     Clyde Snow. Oklahoma Historical Society | OHS. 

     https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=SN001.  Accessed             October 1, 2022

Weil, Martin.

     2014. Clyde Snow, Forensic Anthropologist Who Identified Crime Victims, Dies at           86. The Washington Post. WP Company.                                   

     https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/clyde-snow-famed-forensic-             anthropologist-dies-called-grave-digging-detective/2014/05/16/f93778a4-dd44-           11e3-bda1-9b46b2066796_story.html. Accessed October 1, 2022

Snow, Clyde.

1982. Forensic Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology. Volume(11):97-131.

     https://www.jstor.org/stable/2155777. 

FURTHER READING

http://aboutforensics.co.uk/clyde-snow/ 

https://www.criminaljustice.ny.gov/ojis/history/bert_sys.htm 

https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/voices/dr-clyde-snows-legacy-using-forensic-anthropology-to-investigate-human-rights-abuses 

When thinking about archaeology, we immediately think about Indiana Jones trying to find a gold artifact and selling it for money. However, TV is often misleading, and archaeology is more than finding and selling precious artifacts. Archaeology is the study of past people through their material remains, and people alive can have a relationship with the dead through archaeology. 

Those people had a past, and most of them believed that there was a reason why bodies had to be buried. For example, the dead were used as a symbol of power in religion in the middle age. Digging up a body without knowing why it was buried is unethical (Sayer 2010, 14). When is it ethical to dig up or own the past? Yale University held crates found at Machu Picchu. Peru claimed their property, and Yale University decided to return some pieces after World War I but said they could keep some under the laws of the day. (Orson, 2011) 

The ethical dilemma comes from whether those artifacts belong to Yale or not. In the past, archaeologists would disrespect people and artifacts and put them in a museum. Even though the local community already knew about the site (Swanson 2009, 471), Yale University was focused on finding more artifacts and doing more research because, by that time, they were in the process of becoming a research university (Swanson 2009, 473). They got the Peruvian government’s approval and help, and after agreeing that the artifacts found would be the property of the Peruvian government, the law was not enforced. In response, Peruvians modified an 1893 law that states that exporting any Inca monument is prohibited because they are national property. After that, Yale could only export a few artifacts, but remains and artifacts are still taken (Swanson 2009, 474). Among all the antiques that Yale took, there were human bones, jewelry, ceramics, and tools. Undoubtedly, they did not care about the Peruvians’ rights. Sometimes it is about decency because it does not sound good to disturb the resting place of a person to satisfy inquisitiveness or gain power.

Figure 1. A small aryballos — a pottery form generally used to carry oils or perfumes — is one of the artifacts Yale University is returning to Peru. (Orson 2011)

Yale University did not ask the community if they were okay with the artifacts being presented in their museum. In the first place, they did not have permission from Peru’s government to take those artifacts to the U.S. Peru’s government tried to claim their property. However, Yale University told them that the University could not do that because its prestige would be enhanced (Swanson 2009, 476). However, their prestige ended when Peru publicly warned Yale that they would charge them with criminal charges if the artifacts were not returned (Alderman 2014, 2). The public shamed Yale University since many influencers and Peruvians started to share the case on the internet (Alderman 2014, 2). Yale University agreed to return the artifacts by the end of 2012, and Peru is okay with Yale University. (Orson 2011) 

Figure 2. Peruvians held a demonstration in Lima demanding that Yale return the artifacts Bingham took (Orson 2011)

References 

1. Artifacts to Peru.” NPR. NPR, December 18, 2011. https://www.npr.org/2012/01/01/143653050/finders-not-keepers-yale-returns-artifacts-to-peru. 
2. Swanson, Stephanie. “Repatriating Cultural Property: The Dispute between Yale and Peru over the Treasures of Machu Picchu,” San Diego International Law Journal 10, no. 2 (2009): 469-494 https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/sdintl10&i=482. 
3. Alderman, Kimberly. “Yale’s Repatriation of the Machu Picchu Artifacts to Peru.” SSRN, February 18, 2014. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2395686. 

Further readings

1. Strauss, Mark. “When Is It Okay to Dig up the Dead?” Adventure. National Geographic, May 3, 2021. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/160407-archaeology-religion-repatriation-bones-skeletons. 
2. Alderman, Kimberly. “Yale Agrees to Return Machu Picchu Artifacts to Peru: Ethics-Based Repatriation Efforts Gain Steam.” SSRN, January 4, 2011. https://deliverypdf.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=090103100025098126126127083007069127036021052020003021097012125098072089095111081067107009018111044039116071007101005002026020030078032034039075092119026099010066031049073021022088078071090026004000007027003119026022109002001105088102110095006021120&EXT=pdf&INDEX=TRUE. 

On April 24th, 1961, a crowd watched as a massive ship emerged from beneath the waves near a Swedish harbor.  This ship was the Vasa, a Swedish military vessel that sank in 1628 and had been sitting on the ocean floor for hundreds of years.  Incredibly, the Vasa remained in good condition, with over 90% of its wood and many artifacts remaining, including coins, shoes, and partially-preserved human remains (Laursen 2012).  While the rediscovery of the Vasa (Figure 1) presented unprecedented challenges for archaeologists, the successful preservation of the objects and remains on board provides valuable information about life in 17th-century Sweden.  

Figure 1: The Vasa, preserved at the Vasa Museum. Retrieved from https://www.vasamuseet.se.

One of the primary factors that allowed the Vasa to be preserved was the cold, brackish water that surrounded it (Robson 2009); the salty water killed microbes or other pests that would have normally eaten the ship apart.  As a result, archaeologists could easily observe the ship once it was raised.  Somewhere between 17 and 20 skeletons were found on the Vasa, with some even containing fingernails and hair (Larsson 2022).  The first step to categorizing the bodies was identifying whether or not they were human (Renfrew 2018, 233-234).  Upon investigation, archaeologists found bones from cats, birds, pigs, cows, and fish on the ship, in addition to humans (Figure 2) (Larsson 2022).  One of the most notable facts about the human bodies was how short they were, with the tallest person being around 5’9″ (Larsson 2022).  This was likely due to their diet, with lack of access to food being common in cold Swedish winters.  In contrast to their diet on land, however, there was plenty of food available on the ship.  In addition to the varied sources of meat mentioned earlier, the sailors also brought fishing equipment and hunting weapons to replenish their food supply if necessary (Larsson 2022).  

Figure 2: Two facial reconstructions of individuals found on the Vasa. Retrieved from https://www.vasamuseet.se.

The archaeological remains aboard the Vasa also provide insight into the culture of the time as they demonstrate the social dynamic aboard the ship.  As an example, the bodies of two women and children were found aboard, supporting the notion that Swedish sailors brought their families onto warships when not in battle (Larsson 2022).  In addition, many of the bodies bear some of the first documented evidence of work-related injuries, with patterns of damage along bones suggesting that they were crushed or scarred by parts of the ship (Bjarvall 1994).  The ages of the sailors recovered also indicate that the men aboard the ship were conscripted into service, with most bodies being somewhere between 18-65 years old.  

Overall, the natural and archaeological preservation of the ship combined with bioarchaeological analysis of the humans and animals on board create a vivid depiction of Swedish naval life in the 1600s.  The archaeological techniques that have been so successful at revealing the culture inside a ship that sat for centuries under the ocean remain a model for what’s possible in the world of bioarchaeology today. 

References

Bjarvall, Katarina. “Skulls Telling Tales of Ancient Mariners : Sweden: Skeletons from a 1628 Shipwreck Give a Glimpse of How the Sailors Looked and Lived. Hollywood’s Portrayals Turn out to Be Pretty Accurate.” Los Angeles Times, 10 July 1994, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-07-10-mn-13813-story.html.

Larsson, Martina. Studies of the Skeletons Tell Us about the People Onboard the Vasa. https://www.vasamuseet.se/en/explore/research. Accessed 29 Sept. 2022.

Laursen, Lucas. Vasa’s Curious Imbalance – Archaeology Magazine Archive. Aug. 2012, https://archive.archaeology.org/1207/features/vasa_warship_sweden_stockholm_harbor.html. Accessed 29 Sept. 2022.

Renfrew, Colin, and Paul Bahn. 2018. Archaeology Essentials: Theories, Methods, and Practice. Fourth edition. Thames & Hudson. 2018.

Robson, Sandra. “Ghost Ships of the Baltic.” Nautical Archaeology Quarterly, vol. 36, no. 1.  Spring 2009, https://nauticalarch.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/36.1-sm.pdf.

Further Reading

Larsson, Martina. The Vasa Museum homepage. https://www.vasamuseet.se/en. Accessed 29 Sept. 2022.

Wheatley, David. Saving the Swedish Warship, VASA. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MU1jA9jnNJ8. Accessed 29 Sept. 2022.