Is maintaining the dignity of the deceased worth withholding a scientific breakthrough? Which ethical framework do we use when working with human remains from different locales (the archaeologists’ or the deceased’s)? These are among the endless questions archaeologists must wrestle with when carrying out their research. When we tell the story of the dead (be it through the food they ate, what religious ceremonies they performed, their recreational activities, etc.) we personify them, and, by consequence, “Those past people should not be regarded as dead or static but, as social beings, capable of being affected by action or discourse in the present,” (Tarlow 2006, 202). It is misguided to treat the dead as means to our archaeological end, rather, we must think of ourselves as their spokesperson in the modern era. 

The past of archaeology is far from a pretty one. Thus, it is important to emphasize ethics in our archeological discussions. Historically, the practice has been one riddled with looting and cultural insensitivities. For example, archaeologists disregard to Native American populations. In one case, the Chumash refused entirely to let archaeological research continue on bones thought to be descendents due to the reprehensible treatment of their ancestors’ skeletons in the past (Renfrew 2018, 307). Strides have been made to rectify this and return artifacts to their rightful owners via acts, like the Native American Graves and Protection and Repatriation act (Renfrew 2018, 307), but archaeology is not immune to making similar mistakes. Even now, archaeologists must make ethically conscious choices regarding where they excavate, what they remove, where they put it, and more. 

In another example, the iconic “bog-people” (Figure 1 and 2) have been the subject of much conversation, regardless of archaeological experience. “Bog bodies” are remains that have been preserved remarkably well due to their waterlogged state (Renfrew 2018, 59). Their museum displays have amassed much interest and drawn many visitors. But is it ethical or respectful to display human remains as a spectacle? Is it out of scientific and educational intrigue, or is it “out of cheap sensationalism or morbid curiosity,” (Bahn 1984, 222). The dilemmas that archaeology introduces only become more complicated when considering the diverse cultural practices concerning the dead. 

Figure 1: The remains of the Lindow man, exhumed from Lindow Moss Bog. Displayed at the British Museum. (Photograph provided by the Trustees of the British Museum, Asset 126565003, the British Museum).

Figure 2: The ‘Red Franz,’ another “bog body” discovered in Northern Europe. (Photograph by Robert Clark, Red Franz, Archaeology Magazine, 2015).

It is important to note that respect as a concept is culturally situated. Most of archeology’s ethical practices are predicated upon the western cultural milieux. In some cultures, displacing the body from its burial ground is a regular, often ceremonial practice. Elsewhere, this practice would be insulting. How do archaeologists navigate these ethical frameworks? 

Many archaeological organizations (for example, SAA) have codified their set of ethics, but, in all truth, it is impossible for archaeologists to determine an all-encompassing set of ethics that will command our research. It is more realistic to make decisions on a case-by-case basis, although there are times when a concrete ethical framework can be effective (Tarlow 2006, 216). Archaeologists not only have an obligation to the present and future, but also to the past it seeks to represent. Archaeologists must find a balance between their scientific endeavors and culturally informed ethical decisions made with knowledge of the indigenous cultural framework.

Further Readings:

1. https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/when-is-it-ok-for-archaeologists-to-dig-up-the-dead

Alex, Bridget. “When is it OK For Archaeologists to Dig Up the Dead?” Discover. 7 September 2018. https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/when-is-it-ok-for-archaeologists-to-dig-up-the-dead.

2. https://journals.le.ac.uk/ojs1/index.php/mas/article/view/144/158

Alberti, Samuel et al. “Should we display the dead?.” Museum and Society, 7.3 (2009): 133-149. 10 Sep. 2022. https://journals.le.ac.uk/ojs1/index.php/mas/article/view/144/158.

3. https://www.theposthole.org/read/article/350

Calugay, Sophia. “Bodies in museums: The moral standing and displaying of the dead. The Post Hole. December 2015. https://www.theposthole.org/read/article/350.

Bibliography

Bahn, Paul. “Do Not Disturb? Archaeology and the Rights of the Dead.” Journal of Applied Philosophy 1, no. 2, 213–25. 1984. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24353296.

“Bog body; arm-band; garrote.” The British Museum. https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_1984-1002-1.

Renfrew, Colin and Paul Bahn. Archaeology Essentials: Theories/Methods/Practices. New York: Thames and Hudson Inc., Fourth Edition, 2018.

Society for American Archaeology. “Ethics in Professional Archaeology.” SAA: Society for American Archaeology. 2016. https://www.saa.org/career-practice/ethics-in-professional-archaeology.

Tarlow, Sarah. “Archaeological Ethics and the People of the Past.” Chapter. In The Ethics of Archaeology: Philosophical Perspectives on Archaeological Practice, edited by Chris Scarre and Geoffrey Scarre, 199–216. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511817656.012.

The Archaeology of Tattoos:  An Investigation of the Oldest known Tattoos 

Figure 1. A drawn depiction of the tattoos of the ancient Egyptian mummy Amulet 

Figure 2. The joint tattoos of Otzi the iceman used to remedy arthrosis in the wrist

        In modern times and throughout ancient history, tattoos have held important significances and functions which are integral in an individual and culture’s self-expression. In shaming those for creatively expressing themselves in a physical manner through unique attire, makeup, or tattoos, one is discouraging the individualism which shapes has and will continue to shape cultures and makes humans unique from one another. 

        Tattoos have held more than just symbolic and decorative roles throughout history. The oldest evidence of tattoos was discovered on the remarkably well preserved remains of Otzi the Iceman who lived between 3370 and 3100 BC (Krutak, 2015). These tattoos were especially striking as they were clearly used in a curative manner. They were strategically placed on areas of his body that were associated with painful arthrosis of the joints (Krutak, 2015). This subverts the stereotype that ancient humans were technologically inferior to humans today and were distinctly aware of the curative abilities of acupuncture-like treatment. This therapeutic use of tattooing techniques has been discovered in multiple other preserved bodies of ancient humans such as the chief of Pazyryk (Krutak, 2015). Additionally, the process of being tattooed at a young age was customary in ancient Egypt. Recent research provides evidence that traumatic experiences like tattooing performed early in life stimulates hormone release in the pituitary gland. This promotes the rapid growth and development of children into stronger, healthier, and overall larger adults (Krutak, 2015). Evidently, the society of the ancient Egyptians understood the surprising and powerful effects of tattooing just as the society that Otzi belonged to did. 

        Tattooing in a more americanized and modern sense for religious, symbolic, and artistic endeavors existed in a similar manner around 7000 years ago. For example, ancient Egyptians received intricate net-like tattoos on their stomach during pregnancy that were intended to function as a protective barrier for women while they carry their children (Mark, 2017). The nets would expand while their babies grew and were thought to be a safeguard for the baby. Also, these same women were often decorated with religiously significant tattoos such as the deity Bes to serve as a protector during the women’s pregnancy and labor process (Mark, 2017). The symbolic use of religious figures and netting in the form of permanent markings conveys the importance which tattoos held in ancient Egyptian culture and especially in women of this culture. These intricate tattoos were also hypothesized to function as a means of demonstrating one’s distinctive physical appearance and sexual identity. 

        Through the exploration of the history of tattoos, it is made clear that past cultures were not vastly different from our modern societies. The practice of tattooing in communities like Otzi’s and the ancient Egyptians illustrates the technological sophistication of past cultures, despite ethnocentric views that are often held today. The decorative role of tattoos also demonstrates that since the beginning of human life, people have always strived to express their identities in this permanent, deeply symbolic, therapeutic, or simply ornamental manner. 

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References and Links for Further Investigation: 

Johnson, Lauren. “8 Oldest Tattoos in the World.” Oldest.org. Oldest.org, May 6, 2022.     https://www.oldest.org/artliterature/tattoos/. 

Krutak, Lars. “The Cultural Heritage of Tattooing: A Brief History.” Karger. Karger               Publishers , March 26, 2015. https://www.karger.com/Article/Fulltext/369174.  

Magazine, Smithsonian. “Infrared Reveals Egyptian Mummies’ Hidden Tattoos.”                 Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Institution, December 5, 2019.                                         https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/infrared-reveals-egyptian-mummies-hidden-tattoos-180973700/. 

Mark, Joshua J.. “Tattoos in Ancient Egypt.” World History Encyclopedia. Last                     modified  January 09, 2017. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1000/tattoos-in-         ancient-egypt/.